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What is ADHD Inattentive Presentation?

by Dr. Garforth | Jan 27, 2019 | ADHD
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder or ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that has three presentation types: Inattentive, Hyperactive/Impulsive, and Combined. A neurodevelopmental disorder means that it relates to how the brain functions and it is not due to parenting strategies or psychological stress.

When people hear the word ADHD, they typically think of what they have seen on television or movies where the character is going a mile a minute and bouncing off the walls. If these characters were to be diagnosed with ADHD, they would likely be considered to have the Hyperactive/Impulsive Presentation of ADHD and not the Inattentive presentation.

An individual with the Inattentive Presentation of ADHD symptoms or traits is not as outwardly apparent to an observer. These individuals have a hard time with their organizational skills and paying attention for a sustained time period. Like most conditions, if an individual is able to come up with different strategies and coping skills to manage their symptoms, it can be difficult for others to know how hard they are working to get through the day.  
The term ADHD Inattentive Presentation means that when the individual was assessed for ADHD, they met the diagnostic criteria based on behaviors relating to inattention. One analogy that I heard years ago about an individual with ADHD is something along the lines of ‘Having ADHD is like having your brain always channel surfing.’ This description would best describe an individual with the Inattentive Presentation of ADHD because it is as if they are always using part of their attention to check if there is something else that is more important or needs to be done.

When working with an individual with the Inattentive Presentation of ADHD it is important to remember that the individual is not acting this way on purpose, it is part of who they are and how their brain functions. Try to be patient with them and help them refocus when you can see their mind is wandering to something else. It can be very frustrating, but remember, the individual is likely just as frustrated that they cannot provide the same focus and attention to detail as individuals without ADHD.
For the examples in this post, I will be using a fictional character named Sam who has ADHD Inattentive Presentation. Please note these are just examples and I am not describing a real individual.

They are disorganized in life and can have a hard time following instructions and completing tasks

An individual with the Inattentive Presentation of ADHD struggles with organization in all aspects of their life. The individual's house will likely be very disorganized, and they will have difficulty locating things that they need. They have trouble completing tasks in a timely and sequential manner and may jump to another job before finishing the first.

For example, imagine Sam has to clean up the kitchen after making a big meal. The first thing he wants to do is to bring all the dishes from the table to the kitchen sink. As Sam is clearing the dishes, he notices that the dishwasher has the clean light on so he stops clearing the table to unload the dishwasher. When he is partway unloading the dishwasher, he steps on some spilled food on the floor and decides he better sweep the floor before anything else because Sam doesn't want to make more of a mess by tracking food all through the kitchen while he is cleaning up. Sam decides to make a couple of piles in the kitchen as he sweeps. He puts the first pile into the dustpan and goes to empty it into the garbage. When he is at the garbage can, Sam notices that it is overflowing and that he should really empty it. As he is coming back inside after taking the garbage out, he notices the mail by the front door and sees his favorite magazine has arrived. He can't wait to look through it, so he decides to take a quick look through it. In this short period, Sam has started three tasks in the kitchen but only finished one of them. When Sam sees a job that needs to be done, he forgets to finish the current job he is working on and goes ahead to start the next task.

They often lose things

Losing things goes hand in hand with disorganization. If someone struggles with keeping things tidy in a logical, well thought out manner, it only makes sense that they lose the things they need. This could be because the individual has not established a dedicated spot for putting these essential items or because they were distracted in the middle of doing something and they moved on to the next task before finishing the first.

If you think of the example used above with Sam trying to clean up the kitchen, Sam quickly moved from one task to another before he finished the first task. Before he moved on to the next task, he did not take the time to return the items he was using to where they belong. The next time he needs the broom and he goes to get it out of the broom closet, do you think he will remember that it is actually beside the garbage?

They find it difficult to perform tasks that require long periods of concentration

An individual with ADHD Inattentive Presentation will have difficulty concentrating on something for an extended period such as school, homework, attending a presentation, reading long documents.

For example, Sam is sitting in class at school and is having a very hard time concentrating on what the teacher is talking about. He is continually fidgeting and looking around the classroom.

They don’t seem to be listening when you are speaking to them directly

It can be very frustrating to try to have a conversation with someone who has the Inattentive Presentation of ADHD because they can be looking at you right in the eye when you are talking to them but have no idea what you are talking about. This is particularly frustrating in situations when there is nothing else going on while you are talking to them. In this instance, the individual is likely paying more attention to their own thoughts than to what you are saying.

They are easily distracted by unrelated things

When an individual with the Inattentive Presentation of ADHD is in an environment where there is a lot of stuff going on, it can be challenging for them to focus on the task at hand. For example, think of something as commonplace as going out for a meal at a restaurant. This situation can be challenging because there are so many different things that can serve as distractions.

Let's say Sam is going out for dinner with a few friends, but his friends are getting frustrated because Sam is not involved in the conversation they are having. What they don't realize is while Sam is trying to be a contributing member to the discussion at his table, he also is following the conversations that are happening at the tables around him. He is not eavesdropping intentionally to be rude, but it is hard for him to focus on one conversation when there are so many other conversations going on around him. It is particularly hard if one of the tables is talking about something that interests him. He also may get distracted by music that is playing in the background. If he hears a familiar song, it may trigger a specific memory, and reminiscing about this memory can take his attention away from actively enjoying the meal with friends.

They are often forgetful when it comes to daily activities

If you have someone who is disorganized and often loses things, it isn’t hard to understand why they may struggle with things like remembering to pay bills on time or completing their chores.

Sam has a hard time organizing his finances and paying his bills on time. He finds it hard to remember when the different bills are due and where he needs to get the information from. He also struggles to remember to check the balance on his credit cards and to make sure he has enough money in his bank account to cover his expenses. 

Reference:

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

What does ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive Presentation mean?

by Dr. Garforth | Jan 31, 2019 | ADHD
Most people are familiar with the acronym ADHD or Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder but not many people can tell you much more about it than the individual is hyper and always on the move. 

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder which means that it relates to how the brain functions and that it is not caused by a stressful situation or parenting style. Although, the environment can affect how an individual is able to cope with their symptoms.

There are three different types of ADHD that will affect an individual’s emotions, learning and self-control. An individual with ADHD can have a predominantly Inattentive Presentation, a Predominantly Hyperactive/Impulsive Presentation or a Combined presentation. Each of these types of ADHD comes with their own set of challenges for the individual. The symptoms an individual with ADHD exhibits will likely change throughout their lifetime and affect their functioning differently in different settings.

When you are interacting with an individual, who has the Hyperactive/Impulsive Presentation of ADHD you need to remind yourself that there are some things they cannot control in the same way others can. They may do things that you see as frustrating and rude, but please remember that in most cases, they are not intentionally doing these things to bother you. It is just how they function with their symptoms. They likely feel similar frustration about some of their symptoms and wish it wasn’t part of who they are, but it is. The best thing you can do is to be patient with them and to do your best to help them through the situation by subtly suggesting alternatives that would be more appropriate to what they are doing.   
If an individual is diagnosed with ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive Presentation, it means they met the diagnostic criteria for an individual with hyperactive and impulsive behaviors. This presentation of ADHD is the one that the media typically portrays. It is also the one that the layperson will feel they diagnose based on the behavior they see.
For the examples in this post, I will be using a fictional character named Jamie who has ADHD Hyperactive/Inattentive Presentation. Please note that these are just examples and I am not describing a real individual.

They often fidget or tap their hands or feet.

An individual with the predominately Hyperactive/Impulsive Presentation of ADHD has a tough time sitting perfectly still. If they are in a situation where they have to sit for extended periods of time, they will often be moving in some way whether it is fidgeting with something or tapping something.

Jamie has a tough time when she is in a meeting at work. She tries to be subtle, but she can’t help playing with her hair, tapping her pen on the desk, or shaking her foot under the table. Some people find these types of behaviors to be very distracting, but it is likely that Jamie doesn’t even realize she is doing them.

Sitting down for a long time can be difficult, especially when remaining seated is expected.

Any instance that an individual with ADHD predominantly Hyperactive/Inattentive presentation has to stay seated for an extended period of time can be very daunting for them. They know it will be hard to stay seated and focused.

It may be helpful to think of a time when you had a task to do that you really didn’t want to do and every time you started it, you would be okay for the first few minutes but then come up with something that had to be done at that moment. I think most people experience this with some tasks in their life no matter what, but for an individual with the predominantly Hyperactive Presentation of ADHD, this happens with everything they want to do. It can be very frustrating to the individual because no matter how hard they try, they can’t just sit down to focus for a few hours to get something done.

They often have a hard time engaging in leisure activities quietly.

This trait can be very frustrating for the individual on many different levels. It can make ‘hanging out with friends’ very difficult. Sitting around and talking or laying around at the beach can be very difficult because the individual with ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive presentation can be very boring and make them feel very restless. These individuals don’t understand how sitting in a bathtub can be relaxing. They may feel guilty because they can’t enjoy just doing anything.

It is Spring Break, and Jamie goes on a trip with some friends to Mexico. She has looked into all the different activities they can do on their trip, and she is so excited to go on these adventures with her friends. When they arrive, Jamie wants to go look around the resort, but her friends say they just want some time to relax after a day of traveling. They all make a plan to meet in a few hours for dinner. When Jamie gets to her room, she decides she will try to have a bath and relax. After she is in the tub for a few minutes, she gets restless and starts to wonder what her friends could be doing. This frustrates Jamie because she knows so many people that say they can stay in a nice bath for hours, but she is bored after 5 minutes and wants to get out.

Jamie is excited the next day when everybody heads out to the beach for the day. She is looking forward to playing frisbee, beach volleyball, and having fun in the water. When they get to the beach, everybody sets their towels up on the chairs and lays down to relax. Jamie plays along for the first half-hour but then gets restless and needs to get up and move. She asks her friends if they want to play a game or go in the water and they would prefer just to relax on their chairs, so Jamie goes off on her own. This continues to happen throughout the day and frustrates Jamie. She is frustrated for two reasons, one because her friends don’t want to do some of the fun things she wants to do and because she isn’t able to enjoy just lounging around on the beach with them.

They often talk excessively, speak out of turn, or interrupt others.

This can be a real problem for individuals with ADHD Hyperactive/Impulsive presentation because even though they may know it is inappropriate to do any of these behaviors, they cannot help themselves.

They may constantly be talking because it is easier for them to focus on the situation than in complete silence. Individuals with the Hyperactive/Impulsive presentation of ADHD also may be uncomfortable with the silence because they are unsure of what to do in the silence.

An individual may interrupt in a conversation because they have something important to add to it and they are worried that if they wait for their turn to speak the individual may forget what they were going to say or that the moment it was pertinent to the conversation has passed. They may finish

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another person’s sentence because they are trying to show that person that they are listening to what is being said and they have something they want to add to it.
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If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Reference:

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

What is Attention Deficit / Hyperactive Disorder?

by Dr. Garforth | Mar 26, 2020 | ADHD
Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder. This means ADHD has to do with how the brain functions. It can affect a person’s emotions, learning ability, and or self-control. There are three different subtypes of ADHD:

1. Predominantly Inattentive Presentation
2. Predominantly Hyperactive/Impulsive Presentation
3. Combined Presentation.

Since ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder, it means that it is not caused by poor parenting or psychological stress. However, the environmental conditions an individual with ADHD is in can affect how the symptoms present themselves and how the individual is able to cope with them. This also means there is hope, because if an individual receives appropriate treatment, they may be able to decrease their symptoms which can allow the individual to function better.

It is important to remember that ADHD symptoms occur on a spectrum and how they affect someone is as unique as they are. Still, there are some of the common symptoms like having difficulty paying attention, having a hard time following directions, often interrupting others, fidgeting, being forgetful, and individuals may avoid doing tasks requiring sustained attention.

As the demands on an individual’s life change, the presentation of the symptoms changes. For example, an individual may have a tough time while in high school because they have difficulty sitting through their classes without fidgeting or wanting to get up and walk around. Once the individual leaves high school, they may find it a lot easier to manage their symptoms because they are no longer required to sit and listen for extended periods.  
Some people are more familiar with the term Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and use it instead of ADHD. ADD is the label that was initially used to describe ADHD when it first appeared in the Diagnostic and Statistics Manual III (DSM) in 1980 and was in use until 1987. The DSM is the standard handbook for doctors, medical professionals, and counselors to refer to when they are diagnosing mental health issues. The most current issue of the DSM, DSM-5, published in 2013 uses the term Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder and defines three presentations of ADHD. However, many people are familiar with the term ADD, and so it is still used, even though it is an outdated term that is no longer correct.
ADHD affects between 5 to 9 percent of children and between 3 to 5 percent of adults. For an individual to receive a diagnosis of ADHD, the symptoms must have been present before they were 12 years old. More than half of individuals who are diagnosed with ADHD as a child experience the symptoms as an adult. These symptoms appear on a continuum and may be expressed differently throughout an individual’s lifetime as the demands on their abilities change.
Since ADHD is a medical condition, an individual must have a full assessment from a qualified individual, such as an Educational Psychologist, a Psychiatrist, or a Developmental Pediatrician, to receive a diagnosis. The point of the assessment is so the professional can develop a broader understanding of why the individual is the way they are. This will involve a collection of information about the individual’s developmental, medical and educational history. The professional should use interviews and questionnaires so they can establish an understanding of how the individual reacts in a number of different situations from different points of view (ex: parents, teachers, coaches, employers).

ADHD will only be diagnosed if the symptoms are not caused by something else. For example, someone may have a hard time paying attention during class if they are tired of going through a stressful situation.
When you or your loved one was given the diagnosis of ADHD, the professional should have discussed the different forms of treatment available. There is medication available to help treat some of the symptoms of ADHD, and there are different types of interventions available to treat the symptoms.

Unfortunately, there is not a one size fits all approach to handling ADHD symptoms, and taking medication is not going to make all the symptoms go away magically.

When looking at a potential intervention, it is essential to be sure it targets the skills that you need help with. There is no point in taking a class on “How to ride a bike” if you already know how to ride a bike but want to learn how to ride a unicycle.
There will likely be some trial and error before you are able to find the right treatment plan, but it is important to keep trying different strategies until you discover the right combination.

Different strategies can be used at home, school, and work situations that can help individuals.
I feel recommendations for strategies or interventions need to be made on a case by case basis to allow for personalizing the approach to the individual’s needs, but generally speaking, I tend to recommend evidence-based practices such as:

 • Executive Functioning Coaching
 • Behavior Interventions
 • Social Skills Training
Did you know that Garforth Education has created two online courses, A Parent’s Guide to IEPs and A Teacher’s Guide to IEPs? These courses were designed to give you a clear understanding of the IEP Process and they guide you through the steps you should take to prepare for IEP meetings.

Be sure to check out more information on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.
If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about this blog post (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

Reference:

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

The Importance of Disability Awareness

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 26, 2019 | Advocacy, Learning Disabilities | 23 comments
Before talking about disability awareness, it is necessary to discuss self-awareness: not only is an individual more than their disability, disability awareness is an extension of self-awareness. It is crucial for an individual with a disability to have self-awareness so they can see themselves as an individual just as unique as someone without a disability, and not define themselves by their disability. For others to recognize an individual with a disability as more than their disability, the individual needs to be able to identify themselves as more than just someone with a disability. 

What is Self-Awareness?

Self-awareness is an understanding of one’s self, and an individual’s ability to be self-aware typically increases with age. Self-awareness looks very different for a 5-year-old, a ten-year-old, a teenager, and an adult. It is a skill that can be taught and ultimately for an individual to be fully self-aware, they need to understand their strengths, weaknesses, likes, dislikes, fears, wants, desires, and beliefs.

Steps to gaining Self-Awareness:

1. The individual needs to know what self-awareness is and understand why it is essential for them to be self-aware.

Ex: I need to know about myself, so I can tell other people who I am and what makes me important!

2. Help the individual identify their talents, strengths, and weaknesses in a variety of different contexts.

Ex: What are your strengths at home, school, and in the community? What things are hard for you to do on your own?

3. The individual should reflect on what their feelings, opinions, biases, and values are. They should then think about how these relate to other individuals and their beliefs.

Ex: What is important to me? Is it necessary for everybody else?

4. They need to understand what they feel ‘success’ is and decide what success is for them.

Ex: What would make it so you are happy with your life?

Steps to gaining Disability Awareness:

1. Disability awareness is very important for an individual with a disability and their family. It is essential that you understand what the formal term and diagnosis mean so when you are asked by others what it means to have a disability you can describe it. It will mean you can correct people who are misinformed about the disability so you can help them understand the condition better.

2. After you know how to explain the disability, you will need to develop a full understanding of how it affects you or your loved one’s daily life. Each disability has several symptoms, and for many disabilities, all symptoms do not have to be present for a diagnosis. When someone learns that someone has a disability, they will often think of previous people they have encountered with that disability and apply that person’s symptoms to this new case. I am not sure why people feel they can generalize a disability like this, but they do.

Ex: If someone tells only tells you they have a learning disability, can you tell by looking at them what areas they have problems with?

3. It is critical for you to develop an awareness of coping strategies that work and do not work to help compensate for your disability. Do not assume that just because a strategy works for one person that it will work for you. Even siblings with the same disability can have strategies that work for one of them but make it harder for the other. Be aware that there will likely be several people with good intentions who may try to convince you of attempting a new strategy but if you have a strategy that works for you and you like it do not feel like you have to try their strategy. At the same time do not be afraid to try new strategies if you still haven’t found one that works well for you.

4. Self-acceptance and disability acceptance is crucial step in the self-awareness/disability awareness process for the individual and their family members. This can be a challenging step for some individuals, and it is important that they take the time they need to process and come to terms with the diagnosis. This is something you cannot force, and you cannot rush through. Of course, there will be days that are harder to accept the diagnosis than others, but once you are able to discuss the diagnosis without getting upset about talking about it, you are on your way to disability acceptance. Please note, there may be some people in an individual’s life that never accept or come to terms with the diagnosis. There is no way that you can force acceptance of a diagnosis.

5. It is helpful for an individual to be able to compartmentalize their disability, so they are able to see themselves as more than just the disability. Having a disability does not make them any less of a person with individual likes and dislikes. There may be some things that are more difficult or impossible for them to do because of their disability, but it does not mean they are any less of a person. It can be helpful for the individual to attribute the issue to their disability, but at the same time, it is essential that they do not use their disability as an excuse for not trying things. There are many people in this world that can do surprising things despite their disability. Think of all of the great scientific ideas that Stephen Hawking came up with even though he was paralyzed and not able to use a pencil.

Remember:

Individuals with disabilities need to remember that they know themselves the best. You may not know everything there is to know about the disability you have, but you know about how the disability affects your life. Understanding more about your disability will likely help you understand more about yourself and provide you with insight into what you might be able to do differently to make your life easier.

Parents of individuals with disabilities, you are the expert on your child and how their disability affects their daily life. Experts can tell you about the disability and various strategies to try. Take the time to listen and learn as much as you can from them. In the end remember, you know your child the best and are the one who has to decide if those strategies are right for your family.

This post is based on a journal article by Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins & Herman’s qualitative analysis of 20 years of research published Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.

The Importance of Proactivity

by Dr. Garforth | Mar 1, 2019 | Skill Development | 4 comments
Proactivity is an important skill to foster success for anyone, but it is especially important for individuals with disabilities. The more proactive an individual can be in school, social situations, employment and recreational activities, the more likely they will experience success in these settings. In order to be proactive, it helps the individual to have developed both self and disability awareness. 9 things are helpful for an individual with disabilities to do in each of these settings.

How to be Proactive

*For the examples, we will be using a fictitious high school student named Joe who has ADHD, any resemblance to a real individual is purely coincidental.

1. Individuals must understand what proactivity is, why it is essential and the benefits of being proactive.

Proactive simply means that an individual does something in anticipation of what comes ahead, whether it be a problem, something they will need, or a change that will be required to be made. Being proactive involves foresight into your future needs, and it should make things easier for you long term.

For example, Joe stops at the grocery store to grab a snack, and he remembers that there was not much milk left after he finished breakfast this morning. Joe decides that it would be a good idea to buy more milk while he is at the store so that when he finishes the last little bit of milk in the carton at home, he will not have to go back to the store to buy more.

2. Make decisions and act on them.

It can be hard enough for an individual to make a decision, but following through with the decision can be even harder.

For example, on the weekend, Joe has decided that he needs to get his laundry done so he can have clean clothes for the coming week at school. Now that he has made the decision, he needs to follow through with it, but there always seems to be one more thing that Joe needs to do first before he can start his laundry. This procrastination goes on all weekend, and he never ends up doing his laundry before Monday.

3. Individuals need to recognize when there is a decision that needs to be made and to develop strategies for evaluating different options.

It is crucial that an individual understands the advantages and disadvantages of making a decision. It can be beneficial for them to hear someone modelling decision-making strategies out loud. You can do this by subtly talking through some of the different choices you make throughout the day and listing the pros and cons for the various options, or by stating your reason for making a particular decision.

For example, Joe has homework to do tonight, and he is trying to decide whether he should do it before he goes to baseball practice, or watch TV before going to practice and do his homework after practice. If Joe does his homework before practice, it means that it will be done and he can relax after practice. However, he had a long day at school, and Joe just wants some time to chill out before going to practice and watching something on TV sounds really appealing. If Joe decides to watch TV now and wait until after practice to do his homework, he will likely be tired from practice and not in the mood to do homework.  

4. Individuals need to understand the importance of taking responsibility for their actions. 

Individuals need to realize that everything they do or not do in life has consequences. Some decisions they make will have positive outcomes, but there will also be some decisions that have negative ones.

For example, Joe decided to stay up late last night so he could play video games with his friends. When his alarm went off in the morning, he kept hitting snooze. When his Mom finally made him get out of bed so Joe would not be late for school, he quickly got dressed to catch the bus. He did not remember to grab breakfast on his way out the door. All day at school he was easily distracted because not only was he tired from staying up late, but was also very hungry because he did not eat breakfast.

5. Individuals need to develop an internal locus of control.

An individual with an internal locus of control is someone who believes that their success is based on the work they do and that they have control over their lives. This is important for individuals with disabilities because there are things in their life that are harder for them to do that for others and this can be very frustrating. They need to be able to do a little self-talk to remind themselves that with hard work and persistence they will be able to succeed.

For example, there is an upcoming exciting school trip and Joe’s parents say that to go, he has to make sure that he gets at least a 75% on his History test next week. He knows the test is going to be hard, but he also knows if he does a little bit of review each day he will know enough to succeed at the test.

6. Individuals need to self-advocate and be assertive about their needs.

Self-advocacy means for an individual to be able to speak about their disability for themselves and ask for what they need. It is a crucial skill for anyone with a disability to develop so they can get the assistance they need and deserve in order to succeed.

For example, it is September and the start of a new school year for Joe. This year he has some new teachers, so he makes sure to go up to them in his first class to discuss his ADHD with them and what his learning needs are. He mentions that he is allowed extra time to take tests and to write them in a different room to minimize the distractions for him. As the term continues, he speaks to his teachers before his test to make sure a separate testing location for him has been reserved and that he will be allowed the extra time to complete the test.

7. Individuals need to develop different strategies for engaging in the world.

It can be very intimidating for someone with a disability to go out in public, especially if what they are trying to do makes their disability apparent. Even if someone has accepted and is comfortable with their disability, they can still feel very self-conscious; especially if they have an ‘invisible disability,’ such as a learning disability or ADHD that others are not aware of just by looking at them.

For example, let’s consider our friend Joe who wants to go hang out with his friends. He knows from past experiences that he gets bored just sitting around and talking for a few reasons:
  • He has a hard time staying still for a whole evening
  • He doesn’t know what to talk about
  • He gets bored quickly if he doesn’t like the topic of conversation
  • ​His friends get frustrated if he is using his phone to play games while they are trying to hang out

Some of the things that Joe can do to prepare for a night of hanging out with his friends:

  • Get some exercise (ride his bike, go for a run or to the gym) so that he does not have as much energy while they are talking
  • Come up with some conversation starters and topics that he enjoys talking about
  • Think of some card games or board games that he and his friends can play while they are hanging out
  • ​Bring his guitar so he can play some background music and keep his hands busy instead of using his phone

8. Individuals need to build self-confidence.

Self-confidence can be a huge game changer for an individual with a disability. I have found that once an individual experiences success in one area of their life, like a hobby, the confidence they gain from this success starts to overflow into other areas including the ones they struggle with.

9. Individuals need to understand and take responsibility for risk-taking. 

It is tough to go through life without taking any risks and for some individuals, partaking in risky behaviour is too exciting to avoid. It is important to develop strategies to identify the risk and ways to weigh the pros and cons of that particular risk.

In some cases it is helpful to develop a good support network as people don’t always realize what they are doing is dangerous so need to have someone help identify the risk and its consequences to them.
This post is based on a journal article by Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins & Herman’s qualitative analysis of 20 years of research published Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.

Successful, but still dyslexic

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 31, 2019 | Advocacy, Learning Disabilities
In life, I think it is very easy to judge a book by its cover. Many people see me and my story as a success story, and by all means, it is. I am a successful dyslexic, but I am still a dyslexic. Every day I still struggle with various aspects of my dyslexia.
Dyslexia is invisible. Frequent spelling mistakes are the visible symptoms of dyslexia, as are the grammatical and syntactical errors in a dyslexic’s writing and speech. My dyslexia causes me to second guess any form of my written communication because I know there may be errors in something I write that I cannot see (particularly in social media).
I should probably start off by giving a little background on my story.
My name is Dr. Kathryn Garforth. I have a Ph.D. in Learning Disabilities, but more importantly, I have the knowledge you can only gain from personal experience as someone who is severely dyslexic.

To the trained eye, my struggles would have been apparent even in preschool. In fact, my preschool teacher even mentioned something to my parents regarding her concern for my development.

Once I started school, it was obvious that learning to read was not going to be an easy feat. I knew that I was different because most of my peers had no problem understanding how the letters on the page related to the words that we speak.

In kindergarten, my difficulties were brushed aside, and my parents were told not to worry because I was a ‘late baby’ (I was born at the end of October) and that I would catch up with my peers.

In the first and second grades, I was always put in the lowest reading group. I was getting pull-out, one-on-one support with the Reading Recovery™ program but did not make any progress.

I was still struggling in the third grade and it was the first time my parents were told that I may have a learning disability. In grade four I was diagnosed with dyslexia.

I was fortunate that my parents were able to pay for private tutoring outside of school. It was through this private tutoring that I began to make some progress in learning to read.

My grade five teachers felt that I was a waste of her time and predicted that I would never finish school. It was obvious to my parents that the public school system had given up on me.

Luckily, my parents knew I was smart and refused to believe I couldn’t learn to read. They also had the ability to send me to a private school specializing in dyslexia. It was at this school that I learned how to read, and more importantly, I learned that I wasn’t stupid, something that my parents were never able to convince me to believe. Finally, I was given hope that I could overcome my learning disabilities.

There were more than a few bumps along the road, but I learned how to read and what strategies I needed to use to support my learning.
I made it through high school, a Bachelor of Science in Computer Science, a Bachelor of Education, a Master of Arts in Special Education, and a Doctor of Philosophy in Learning Disabilities. I don’t think there are many people who would argue with me when I say that my story is a story of success.

There are some people who would say that I am cured, or that I never really could have been dyslexic after all. It is something that I have heard before and I am sure that I will hear again. Every time I hear it, it hurts.

The outside world doesn’t see how hard I have worked to get where I am. They don’t understand how much effort is needed and how long it takes for me to read a research article, or a book in order for me to comprehend what I have read.

They don’t realize that before I publish a blog post or any form of communication that I have to have it proofread. The first drafts of my writing are riddled with spelling, punctuation, grammar, and syntax errors. This does not mean that I am not an expert in my field, it means that I am dyslexic.

They don’t think about how my dyslexia has shaped my career path. When I first started university, I had a double major in Drama and Computer Science. I had to drop the Drama because there is no way I could keep up with the required readings for the coursework. I wasn’t cast in any of the school productions, not because of my acting ability, but because I couldn’t do the dry reads required for the auditions.

When I was finishing up Computer Science, I realized that even though conceptually I could do it, my dyslexia made it difficult and I would get frustrated doing this as a profession. My biggest problem was debugging my programs because I could not recognize the errors within the code. I can vividly remember spending hours going through code looking for the bug and not being able to identify a simple spelling error in one of the variable names.

I then decided to follow my passion for education. I struggled during my Bachelor of Education program because I had to do a full course load. Completing all the readings was challenging and exhausting. During my practicums, my sponsor teachers commented on my spelling errors and mentioned how it wasn’t a good model for the students. Also, it wasn’t considered professional in my written communication with parents.

These issues made me question whether being a classroom teacher was really the right choice for me, so I decided to pursue a master’s degree.

Again, in the master’s program, I struggled to keep up with the assigned reading for my classes. When I turned in written assignments, I would frequently get comments on my work suggesting that I create a draft before writing and that I have someone edit my work before turning it in. They didn’t realize I had worked off an outline and already had someone proofread my work.
During my Ph.D. I faced similar challenges. When I was preparing my dissertation, I asked the Faculty of Graduate Studies if they could recommend an editor to proofread my dissertation. They suggested that if I hired an editor it might be viewed as cheating. Instead, they suggested that I hire a tutor to teach me how to proofread the material myself. I explained that I had already gone through extensive tutoring to try and learn these skills, but that I still needed assistance to identify mistakes not picked up by computer checks due to my severe dyslexia.

I had originally wanted to earn additional accreditations during my program so I could be a licensed school psychologist. This would have allowed me to formally diagnose individuals with learning disabilities. Although I completed almost all the course work for this, I eventually decided against this because, in reality, I would have required an editor to proofread my reports before I sent them out. Having an editor reading every one of my reports would be expensive, and a potential breach of confidentiality.
When I started my Ph.D., I had dreams of becoming a tenured professor at a top-ranking university. However, once again the realities of my dyslexia began to sink in. How would I manage in a profession that is ‘publish or perish’ when academic writing was not my strong point?

I realized the amount of reading I would need to do to keep up to date with all the latest literature in the field would consume all of my time. Not to mention the time I would need to prepare for teaching several courses, grade assignments, and the other obligations I would have to fulfill for a potential university appointment.
Ultimately, I decided the best job for me was to use my dyslexic gift. Throughout my life, I have been an advocate for individuals with dyslexia at various levels. I have provided support to families and individuals with dyslexia and other learning disorders since I was in high school.

Many people have told me that I have a gift for explaining how individuals with learning disabilities learn. I have chosen to use this gift by supporting individuals, families, and educators with their understanding of learning disabilities. That is why I created this blog, why I work privately with families, and provide professional development.

I cannot control other people’s judgment of my language errors that are part of my disability. I can only control how I react to adverse comments. Sometimes it still hurts. Even though I was told I couldn’t at a very formative time in my life, I did finish high school and went on to earn four degrees. My accomplishments and insights allow me to say that ‘I am a successful dyslexic.’

 My life goals include helping others with learning disabilities learn to accept themselves and strive to learn and achieve to their own fullest potential. I hope to inspire their families and educational professionals to understand and learn how to help children with dyslexia learn how to learn.

The point that I am trying to make is that learning disabilities are a very real part of many people’s lives. With the right support, all dyslexics can be given the basic human right of learning to read. Education systems around the world need to so that students get this support starting from an early age when interventions are most effective and successful.

The Importance of Perseverance

by Dr. Garforth | Mar 12, 2019 | Learning Disabilities, Skill Development
Albert Einstein was a brilliant man who made many scientific discoveries, and he attributes his success to his perseverance. He once said,
“It’s not that I’m so smart, it’s just that I stay with problems longer.”

As infants, everyone seems to have an incredible work ethic when learning new things because they will continuously try things over and over again until they succeed at what they are trying to learn. Think of a baby learning how to walk. No matter how many times they fall, they keep getting back up and trying again. They may take a break for a while, but then they go back to it to figure it out. Unfortunately, at some point in our lives, most individuals tend to outgrow this sheer determination to keep trying until we figure it out.

Perseverance is an essential skill for any individual, regardless of whether they have a disability or not. Successful individuals have the ability to persevere in the face of adversity in the many facets of life. Individuals have to develop their own strategies for the many different aspects of their life such as schooling, maintaining good physical and mental health, work, coping in social settings and relationships, and a recreational or leisure setting. Some of the settings will require their own strategies and some strategies will be able to be applied to all settings. Below are five essential things that individuals need to understand about perseverance, and then I discuss how vital perseverance has been in my life.

5 Things Individuals with Disabilities should Understand:

1. Understand the meaning of perseverance.
Merriam-Webster defines perseverance as “a continued effort to do or achieve something despite difficulties, failure, or oppositions.”
Individuals who experience the world in ways other than what is considered or typical will likely face many obstacles along their way through life. They have two choices, they can take a deep breath and meet the challenge, or they can give up. If an individual wants to persevere, they decide to face the challenge even though they know it will be hard.

2. Understand the benefits of perseverance and the consequences of not persevering.
Individuals with disabilities face more than their fair share of difficulties, and there are so many times that it would be so much easier for them just to give up. They need to learn the importance of persevering or sticking with it and pushing through the hard times, no matter how difficult they are because when they succeed it will feel like they are on top of the world.
The problem with someone giving up and not pushing through the challenge is that next time they face a challenge it is harder for them to persevere and much easier to just give up. It can lead to a vicious cycle of giving up every time they face something that challenges them.

3. Understand perseverance as it relates to goal setting
It is always easier for someone to push through the difficult time and keep on trying when they have a target or a goal that they are working towards. The goal provides the incentive for the individual to persevere. It is crucial for individuals to know how to set their own goals because they will be more motivated to want to reach them and have the strength to push through the difficult times to get there.

4. Develop strategies for dealing with obstacles/setbacks and adjust to change
Unfortunately, life is not always fair, and everyone needs to develop ways to deal with the frustration that comes with having to deal with the challenges they face along their way to succeed.

Some general strategies can work, but everyone needs to find the strategies that work best for them and realize that not all strategies will work or be practical in all situations.

Some strategies include stopping what they are doing and taking a break to do something enjoyable, talking to someone they trust about the problem, try to find a positive in the situation, try to find something they can learn from the situation, or indulge in their favourite treat.

Not all of these strategies can be used in all instances, but hopefully, these strategies will help individuals realize that they are only facing a setback and that they just need to find a new way to move forward, even if that means having to adjust their goals or expectations.

5. Recognize that passion and desire keep one moving in the face of adversity
Individuals need to understand that there will be times when even though what they are trying to accomplish seems impossible, the only way they are sure to fail is by giving up. Somehow, they need to develop the desire within themselves to keep on trying to succeed no matter how hard it gets.

On a personal note:

As an individual with dyslexia, I know from personal experience what if feels like to struggle with facing what seems to be roadblock after roadblock on my educational path.

There have been several times when I have felt the urge just to give up and do something else. There have even been times in my life where I have had educators tell me to give up and not expect so much of myself.

I am so glad I did not listen to them and that I developed the strength and strategies to persevere.

I am lucky because throughout my life I have been fortunate to have an incredible support system to provide encouragement.
When I was younger, my Mom bought me this tile, and it has always thought of it when I am faced with yet another challenge that I am not sure if I have the strength to withstand. It has become my motto and proving all the people who said I couldn’t reach my goals has provided me with the determination to get over even the most significant obstacles in life.

I have gone from failing elementary school classes to earning a Ph.D., and nothing can take away the pride I feel from this accomplishment.

Looking back now, even though I wish I never had to go through the pain and suffering I went through as a child, I know it was needed to make me the person I am today and given me the experiences and resources I need to help others avoid the challenges I faced.

You can read more about the challenges I have faced and how I have managed to persevere in spite of them in this post.

This post is based on a journal article by Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins & Herman’s qualitative analysis of 20 years of research published Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.

What is the DSM-5?

by Dr. Garforth | May 7, 2020
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is a handbook that health care professionals from around the world reference for the diagnostic criteria of different disorders. It is published by the American Psychiatric Association and is recognized by the broad scientific community.
The DSM-5 provides diagnostic criteria for the identification of symptoms, personality traits, cognitive functions, physical signs, and behaviors of different disorders.
1. The DSM’s primary purpose is to be a manual used by trained clinicians. It must be feasible for these professionals to use routinely in their clinical practices.

2. Any revisions made to the DSM must be guided by literature reviews conducted by experts in the field on the current research of diagnostic best practices.

3. Revisions should reflect previous editions of the DSM.

4. There should be no set amount of change required between the revisions of the DSM.
The DSM provides trained clinicians with a set of guidelines for making a reliable diagnosis. The diagnostic criteria are not meant to be used as a checklist for professionals. A detailed history of the individual must include a summary of their social, psychological, and biological factors that need to be considered before making a diagnosis. The clinician can then use their training to decide if the signs and symptoms exceed the normal range and warrant a diagnosis. A proper diagnosis is vital for guiding the suggested treatment options and recommendations made to the individual with the condition.
In 1844, the first predecessor to the DSM was published so that medical professionals could have a common language to use when discussing institutionalized mental patients. It was used in censuses to gather information about the frequency of different mental illnesses in the United States.

In 1917, a joint effort between the National Commission on Mental Hygiene and the American Medico-Psychological Association created a plan to gather information across mental hospitals in the United States by the Bureau of the Census.

In 1921 the American Medico-Psychological Association became the American Psychiatric Association (APA). They teamed up with the New York Academy of Medicine to develop the first edition of the American Medical Association’s Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease to assist in the diagnosis of individuals with psychiatric and neurological disorders.

After World War II, there was interest in the classification of outpatient presentations found in veterans. Around the same time, the World Health Organization published the sixth edition of the International Classification of Diseases. It included a section for mental disorders for the first time.

In 1952, the first edition of the DSM was published. In the first edition, it contained a description of diagnostic categories along with a glossary of their descriptions.

The DSM is regularly revised to ensure its contents stay current with the science of mental disorders. Since its initial publication, there have been several advances in cognitive neuroscience, brain imaging technology, epidemiology, and genetics.

Reference:

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
American Psychiatric Association. (n.d.) DSM History. Retrieved from https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/history-of-the-dsm
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6 Traits that Help Make People with LD Successful

by Dr. Garforth | May 21, 2020 | Learning Disabilities, Skill Development
Having a learning disability can be very challenging for individuals because they can face many difficulties throughout their childhood and several of these issues still affect them in adulthood. Some individuals are able to rise above these challenges and find success while others struggle to get out of bed every day because the challenges are too daunting. Have you ever wondered what makes these two types of people so different?

Over the years several studies have looked at common characteristics found in successful individuals with Learning Disabilities. When looking at several of these studies, 6 traits repeatedly show up. They are self-awareness, proactivity, perseverance, goal setting, having an effective support system, and emotional stability. Not every successful individual with a learning disability exhibits each one of these traits, but they have at least a few of them at different levels. Let’s look at each one of these traits in a little more detail.
**If you want to get access to this PDF, join Garforth Education Exceptional Group on Facebook then look under files**

Self-Awareness

Self-awareness and disability awareness are key skills for any individual with disabilities to have. Successful individuals acknowledge the fact that they have a learning disability, but they do not let the learning disability define who they are as a person. They accept the fact that they have these difficulties and they are willing to receive and use the various supports they need to be successful despite these difficulties. Successful individuals with learning disabilities have a clear understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. They are able to recognize their strengths and use them to help overcome some of their limitations.

Proactivity

These individuals are proactive, they do not sit back and let the world pass them by, they actively seek the world around them. Successful individuals with learning disabilities have what Carol Dweck calls a ‘growth mindset’ which is when an individual believes that they can develop their abilities through hard work and dedication. These individuals feel they have the power to control their own destinies and what they do will affect what they can do. When they decide to do something, they follow through and face the consequences, regardless of whether they are good or bad.

Perseverance

Successful individuals with learning disabilities never give up! They are able to persevere no matter how hard it gets to reach their goals. They understand that the difficult situations they faced were part of their learning experiences. They see any struggles as speed bumps along the way to reach their goals. They embody the saying ‘If it doesn’t kill you, it will make you stronger!”

Goal Setting

Successful individuals with learning disabilities set goals for themselves. The goals that they set are mainly realistic and attainable goals. These goals help provide meaning and direction to their lives. They understand the importance of the step-by-step process that is needed to reach these goals.

The Presence & Use of an Effective Support System

A successful person is only as strong as their team regardless of whether they have a learning disability or not. Individuals with learning disabilities benefit when they have at least one great person in their lives to provide them with support, guidance, and encouragement along their way to success. Successful individuals are not afraid to ask for help when they need it, and they are willing to accept help when it is offered to them. The team that supports these individuals, whether they be family, friends, educators, or professionals, have clear and realistic expectations for them.

Emotional Stability

Individuals with emotional stability have established effective coping mechanisms to deal with the pain, stress, and frustrations of living with a learning disability. Successful individuals with learning disabilities are able to keep a positive, optimistic, and hopeful outlook on life, even when they are struggling with something. It is essential for them to be able to develop and maintain strong relationships so they have people they can go to for support when they need it.

The good news is these are skills that children with learning disabilities can develop over time! Stay tuned for a future post to see how you can help your loved ones develop these skills to help them succeed in life.

This post is based on a journal article by Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins & Herman’s qualitative analysis of 20 years of research published Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.
Did you know that Garforth Education has created two online courses, A Parent’s Guide to IEPs and A Teacher’s Guide to IEPs? These courses were designed to give you a clear understanding of the IEP Process and they guide you through the steps you should take to prepare for IEP meetings.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.
If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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9 Goal Setting Concepts to Promote Success

by Dr. Garforth | Jun 4, 2020 | Skill Development
Goal setting plays a crucial role for anyone who wants to succeed in life. Setting a goal helps provide direction to your effort. There are very few people in this world who have achieved great success without first setting a goal. Having goals can be even more important for individuals with disabilities because it allows them to see progress.

Seth Godin once said:

“Everybody has their own Mount Everest they were put on this earth to climb.”

I feel this quote explains life with a disability perfectly because, for these individuals, Mount Everest represents their disability(s). As any mountain climber, they know that they can’t tackle Everest on their first try and that it is best to practice on smaller mountains. An individual with a reading disability hopefully understands that the first book they are going to read is not going to be Harry Potter. They first need to learn how to read books intended for beginning readers and as their reading skills improve they should one day be able to read Harry Potter.

It is crucial to help individuals learn the importance of goal setting and provide them with the support they need to develop effective goal-setting abilities in all aspects of their life educationally, socially, physically, financially etc. A common acronym for goal setting is SMART goals.
When you are introducing the concept of goal setting, you should emphasize the following points:
A goal is merely a statement (it is often written down) of a wish to accomplish. Some goals have a timeline to them while others do not.
Goal setting helps provide individuals with direction and serves as a constant reminder of what they should do next in order to achieve the desired outcome. Setting goals can give them the inspiration they need to get started.

Accomplishing a goal is an incredible feeling, and this feeling can help drive individuals forward to achieve their next goal. Failing to meet a goal make someone hold themselves accountable for their actions, and it can provide motivation to try harder next time. If individuals do not set goals for themselves, it can be tough to know what to do next and waste a lot of time. It also means they may miss out on many things they wanted to do because they lacked the direction to achieve these things.
Goal setting provides individuals with a road map to their life. With specific, measurable goals a person knows what they need to do to accomplish the things that are important to them. This means they will always know what to do next.
It is easy for an individual to get into ‘dreamer’ mode when setting goals and make a bunch of goals that are unattainable and not what they truly want. It is essential to refocus someone by asking them how they plan on accomplishing the goals they set.
Setting a goal can be easy for some and difficult for others. Having an individual use the SMART acronym can assist them in coming up with Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-Bound goals.

Specific goals mean the goals are clear in what the individual is trying to do. The more information that can be provided in the goal the better because, the more general the goal, the harder it is for an individual to accomplish.

Measurable goals provide a way to judge whether you on the way to achieving your goal and when you have completed the goal.

Achievable goals are ones that the individual has a chance at completing given the resources available to them, their knowledge and in the time frame, they wish to complete them.

Relevant goals are ones that actually matter given the individual’s values and needs. Also completing a goal should provide benefits for the individual in the long run.

Time-Bound goals have a definitive timeline for completion to provide the motivation they need to complete the goal. Without a timeline, it can be very easy to push off a task to a later date.



Once someone knows how to set goals, they need to find a way to set the goals out in a logical manner that gives priority to the more essential goals with an impending deadline as opposed to the fun goals that are individuals are often more motivated to work on.
This step fits so nicely with the old proverb “How do you eat an elephant? One bite at a time.” It shows us that there is nothing wrong with having big long term goals (the elephant) if we realize there are many little steps along the way (one bite at a time) to reach the long term goal. It can be very helpful to come up with several short term goals to serve as milestones for progress towards your long term goal.
When an individual has come up with a new goal, it is crucial for them to take time to think about the challenges they may face trying to accomplish a goal. This serves two purposes, it reminds them that not everything always goes according to plan, and sometimes things take longer than you originally plan. Being aware of this when they make goals can also allow them to come up with ideas on how to solve these potential problems in advance.
It is critical to understand that a person’s goals can change as time passes, and needs and desires change. There is nothing wrong with removing a goal that is no longer important for the individual or is no longer realistic given a change in circumstances.
Some goals individuals will accomplish on their own, but the majority of goals will need at least some form of outside help to achieve. There is no shame in asking for someone to help you reach your goals, especially if they have experience in the area of the goal you are trying to achieve.
I personally find Bullet Journaling (to be a handy way to set goals and keep track of the tasks I need to do to reach my goals. I find it helps me to track my progress and remind me of the step I plan to take to achieve my goals. I also enjoy it as a creative outlet, but the beauty of bullet journaling is that it is entirely up to you to personalize it to what you need.

This post is based on a journal article by Raskind, Goldberg, Higgins & Herman’s qualitative analysis of 20 years of research published Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.

Working Memory

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 1, 2019 | ADHD, Executive Functioning, Learning Disabilities

Working Memory

Working memory is the ability for you to hold information in your mind while you are using it. This information is often not readily available while you are working with it.

For example, when you look at a phone number before dialing it, your working memory stores the phone number so you don’t have to keep looking back at it while you dial every digit.

When discussing working memory, it is important not to get confused with the related terms: short-term memory and long-term memory. While all three memory types are important for everyday life, they each have different purposes.

Types Memory

There are three main categories of memories that the human brain is capable of, short term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. The main differences between these three categories of memory have to do with how long the information is stored and what is going to be done with it while it is being stored.

Short term memory is retained or held in your mind for only a brief period of time, around 15 – 20 seconds. While information is in your short term memory, you are not actively making use of this information. This is needed for daily tasks, but everything held in short term memory does not transition into long-term memory.

Working memory serves as temporary storage for the information you need to use in some way. It is needed so you can complete tasks.

Long-term memory is information that is stored for an indefinite amount of time. Long-term memory is constantly used, as you use your knowledge and past experiences to inform your daily living.

Why is Working Memory Important

Working memory is crucial for reasoning and making sense of information because it allows the individual to relate different pieces of information together.

For example, working memory allows you to hold information during a conversation in your mind, allowing you to remember what has been said, connecting the pieces of the conversation together, and decide what to say next.

You use working memory when doing the following:
  • In math, whether you are performing simple calculations or more complex operations
  • ​In comprehending what you have heard or read
  • ​When you modify your plans or thinking based on new information
  • ​Following a set of instructions
  • ​Organizing and reordering information
  • ​Thinking logically through an argument

Working Memory & Executive Functions

Many professionals consider working memory to be one of the three core executive functions. These are the skills that humans have an innate potential to develop from birth, when given the proper support during development.

Executive functions help you complete daily activities by acting as the CEO in your brain.

Working memory can be subdivided into two different types, verbal working memory and visual-spatial (nonverbal) working memory.

Verbal working memory taps into the auditory system and holds speech-based information. Reciting this information can help keep it in the working memory.

Visual-spatial working memory is responsible for holding the information that can be held as a visual image.

As with other executive functioning skills, working memory does increase as you mature from childhood to adulthood.

However, working memory is a skill that cannot be taught. It is something that can be worked on but there is no one-size-fits-all solution to improving working memory and be cautious of any program that says it can.

That being said they are certain strategies that can be used to help with working memory. It is important to take the time to experiment with different strategies and become familiar with which strategy works best for you.

Working Memory & Strategies

1. Chunking information into smaller pieces.
For example, if asking someone to write something down, provide them with only a few words at a time instead of several words at once.

2. Use lists or graphic organizers to help with tasks that have some sort of routine to them.
For example, if you are having a hard time making sure you have everything you need in the morning when you leave your house. Keep a small check list to review before you go out the door.

3. Recite information you are trying to remember.
For example, if have to look at the ingredients you need when following a recipe, repeat them in your head while you are measuring them out after having read them.

Working Memory & Individual with Exceptionalities

Individuals with one or more exceptionality, such as Learning Disabilities, ADHD, Down Syndrome and Autism, often have problems with working memory. Having a working memory deficit does not mean that they cannot learn, it just means that their learning needs to be approached differently so that their difficulty with working memory is factored into the instructional method.

Reference:

Dawson, P. & Guare, R. (2018). Executive skills in children and adolescents: A practical guide to assessment and intervention. (3rd Ed.) New York, New York: Guilford Press.

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.
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Cognitive Flexibility

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 3, 2019 | ADHD, Executive Functioning, Learning Disabilities, Skill Development

Cognitive Flexibility

Cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory are considered to be the three core executive functions.
Executive functions are a set of skills that help an individual cope with the daily demands of living. Every human is born with the potential to develop these skills when provided with the proper support during development.

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to think about things as well as the ability to consider alternative perspectives. It is sometimes referred to as flexible thinking or metacognition.

Cognitive flexibility is an essential skill for an individual to develop because it allows them to break from routine, establish ideas and participate in novel activities.

Cognitive flexibility comes into play when something unexpected happens and you are forced to deviate from your established plan or routine. It plays a key role in new and novel situations where there is not an established way of responding.
For example, imagine that you are going somewhere that you routinely visit, like a friend’s house, the grocery store or school. On your way, you discover that there is a problem with your normal preferred route.

Someone who has developed cognitive flexibility will not have a hard time deciding on an acceptable alternate route so they can still arrive at their target destination.

For an individual who struggles with cognitive flexibility will get upset by the fact that they cannot take the route they always take to get to this place. They will also have a difficult time coming up with an alternative way to reach their destination.
Cognitive flexibility allows you to approach a novel situation by thinking about what is happening at the moment, coming up with possible solutions, and selecting the best solution from those options.

Cognitive flexibility allows you to move freely from one moment to another with the ability to adjust your response based on how the situation presents itself.

For example, consider a basketball team that rehearses different plays during practice. On game days, they can plan to use the play they practice but they must be able to adapt their plans according to what happens when the game is in play. The team captain cannot just go up to the other team and say, “This is the play we are doing so you must not get in our way to let so we can do it as we practiced.” The team must work together and adapt the play as needed, based on what their opponents are doing.

Three Core Executive Functions

As mentioned before, professionals generally agree that there are three core executive functions, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.

Inhibitory control is sometimes referred to as self-control and it is the ability to think about something before reacting to the stimulus or situation.

Working memory is the ability to keep information in your head while you are using it.

These first two executive functions must be present to some extent before an individual is able to develop cognitive flexibility.

I would like to use the story of the Three Little Pigs as an example to demonstrate how inhibitory control and working memory are needed for cognitive flexibility. 
Most people know the story about the Three Little Pigs and the Big Bad Wolf who comes to blow their house down. People who have read or heard this story know that the Three Little Pigs are the good guys, they are going out on their own to build their own houses; but the bad guy, the Big Bad Wolf, blows their houses down because he wants to eat the pigs.
However, not everybody knows The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs! In this story, the reader learns that poor Mr. A. Wolf was suffering from a cold and only needed to borrow some sugar to make a cake for his grandmother. In fact, he didn’t blow the Little Pig’s house down either. You see, he had a cold and he sneezed. His sneezes were so powerful the first two houses fell down. The story goes on to tell Mr. A. Wolf’s side of the story.

In order for the reader to be willing to hear Mr. A. Wolf’s side story they must be able to not think about how they believe the story goes (inhibitory control) and consider what Mr. A. Wolf says happened (storing this information in their working memory) before they can decide if they will change their mind about what really happened.

Why is Cognitive Flexibility Important

Cognitive Flexibility is a critical skill for living in today’s fast-paced society where demands on a person often change. It helps facilitate the daily social interactions between people as well as in finding solutions to real-world problems that commonly have more than one solution.

Cognitive flexibility is an important skill for people to have because it allows them to:

  • Consider other people’s opinions
  • ​Admit when they are wrong
  • Take advantage of unexpected opportunities
  • ​Adapt to a changing environment
  • Make alternate plans
  • Monitor and evaluate their own actions

Strategy for Developing Cognitive Flexibility

1. Practice making up new rules for board games or games. For example, when playing snakes and ladders, slide up the snakes and climb down the ladders.

2. Find a common object and take turns pretending to make it into something else. For example, a water bottle could be a rocket ship, a unicorn horn, a bowling pin, or a telescope.

3. Read books, create jokes and puns that use plays on words.
Some suggestions for books include the Amelia Bedelia books or the children’s version of Eats, Shoots, and Leaves.

Cognitive Flexibility & Individual with Exceptionalities

As with other executive functions, there are several individuals with various types of exceptionalities, such as ADHD, Autism, Down Syndrome and Learning Disabilities that struggle with cognitive flexibility.

When these individuals struggle with cognitive flexibility it will make them seem rigid. This can make it hard for them to learn new things and cope with daily living in society.

In some cases, there will be areas where the individual can demonstrate exceptional cognitive flexibility but in other areas in their life, they are extremely regimented.


Reference:

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.

Morin, A. (2019). 7 Tips for Building Flexible Thinking. Retrieved from: https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/learning-at-home/homework-study-skills/7-tips-for-building-flexible-thinking?view=slideview
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Inhibitory Control

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 5, 2019 | ADHD, Executive Functioning, Learning Disabilities

Inhibitory Control

Inhibitory control is considered to be one of the three core executive functions.

Executive functions are skills that help us control our behavior, adapt to new situations and problem solve in everyday life.

Inhibitory control is sometimes referred to as self-control, mindfulness, discipline, or emotional regulation.

Inhibitory control allows the possibility of change and the opportunity for making choices. It is what allows you to grow as a person instead of being a creature of habit.

There are several situations where inhibitory control is essential for daily living because without it, we are at the mercy of our emotions and desires. This can often lead to regret because instead of taking the time to think about your reaction, you act on your initial impulse.

Inhibitory Control of Attention

Inhibitory control of attention allows you to be selective about what you choose to focus on while ignoring other activity in the environment. This means you can consciously decide to ignore stimuli in your environment in order to focus on something specific.

For example, when you are in a public place, like a restaurant, inhibitory control allows you to focus on what is going on at your table instead of everything else that is going on around you.

This can be difficult for individuals who have Sensory Processing Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, ADHD whether it be the Inattentive Presentation, the Hyperactive/Impulsive or combined presentation, or Anxiety.

Inhibitory Control of Thoughts

Inhibitory control of your thoughts means that you can choose what you are thinking about and focus your thoughts. It allows you to resist thinking about things that are not important to what you are doing. It also allows you to avoid unwanted thoughts or memories.

For example, when you are sitting in a class your inhibitory control allows you to focus on what the teacher is saying instead of having your mind wander to something you may find more interesting.

This can be difficult for individuals with Depression, Anxiety, ADHD, Eating Disorders, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

Inhibitory Control of Movement

Inhibitory control of movement allows you to avoid doing things with your body.

Some people use fidgeting, like tapping their feet or fingers as a way to help inhibit the need for larger movements.

Self-control

Self-control brings the various types of inhibitory control together. It allows you to resist temptations, regulate your emotions, and avoid acting impulsively. It provides you with the discipline you need to stay on task despite distractions, and to resist the urge to give up even if there are more interesting things you would rather be doing.

Self-control is needed even when there are no things that are competing for your attention. It allows you to stop and think before you speak, instead of blurting out the first answer that comes to your mind. Allowing this ‘think time’ means you have the opportunity to come up with a wiser answer and prevent errors that can be associated with not being able to wait.

Like all executive functions, everyone is born with the potential to develop inhibitory control but it is not present at birth. However, this skill will only develop with the proper support and encouragement as the individual matures.
Inhibitory control is an executive function that can be practiced and can improve over time.

Strategies to help Inhibitory Control

1. Playing games where following directions and taking turns can help with inhibitory control.

2. When responding in conversations, you can stop and make yourself wait a few seconds before responding.

3. Practice mindfulness and self-talking strategies that involve thinking about your thinking to help control unwanted thoughts and challenging situations.
Reference:

Dawson, P. & Guare, R. (2018). Executive skills in children and adolescents: A practical guide to assessment and intervention. (3rd Ed.) New York, New York: Guilford Press.

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.
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IEP: Accommodations and Modifications

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 7, 2019 | IEP
An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is a collaborative process that is used to identify any differences made to a student with special needs’ curriculum including differences in instructional strategies or in the way their learning will be assessed. It is vital that students, parents, and educators understand what adaptations and modifications are and what the difference is between them.

Four Principles of Instruction

Before discussing what adaptations and modifications are, it is important to mention four principles of instruction:
  • Students must actively participate in the learning that is taking place
  • Students learn in a variety of different ways
  • Students learn new concepts at different rates
  • ​Learning is a process that can happen for an individual and a group.
These principles should be considered and used as a guide for any differentiation of instruction, methods of assessment, and/or materials that will be used for a student with special needs.

 
All students deserve to be taught and assessed in a way that maximizes their ability to learn and to show what they have learned.
The adaptations and modifications found in a student’s IEP are meant to provide teachers with the information they need to give the student the best instructional strategies and methods for that student. It is crucial that adaptations and modifications are listed in a student’s IEP to ensure that they are provided throughout the student’s educational career. * 

What are Modifications?

Modifications are changes made to the student’s educational plan that moves away from the curriculum their peers are receiving. They are changes made to methods of instruction and assessments that are made to accommodate the student’s educational needs.

Modifications consist of individualized goals and outcomes which are different than the outcomes of the course. These goals and outcomes should be related to the outcomes of the curriculum so the student can still participate in classroom instruction. This allows the student to feel successful even though they are working at a different conceptual level than their peers.

The decision to modify a student’s program should not be taken lightly. Before a student’s outcomes are modified, the school should review all the attempted instructional interventions and consider the information collected through assessments. This decision should not be made by a single teacher. It should only occur after careful and thoughtful consultation has occurred with parents, school administrators, learning specialists, and the student’s teachers. If after reviewing this information there seems like there are no other alternatives, modifications should be considered.

Modifications should only be made in subjects where they are needed and do not necessarily have to apply to all parts of the student’s program. Parents and educators should realize that depending on where a student is in their education, modifications are not necessarily a permanent solution. These modifications should be monitored and reviewed regularly to ensure they are still necessary for the student.
There are some instances where some individuals will require a fully modified educational program because they cannot access the curriculum. This includes individuals with limited awareness of their surroundings, those with fragile mental or physical health and students with multiple challenges.

If a student has modifications made to the school program in the final years of high school, they will not graduate high school in the same manner as their classmates. They will be issued a high school completion certificate. In British Columbia, this is considered an Evergreen Certificate.

If a student is working towards a high school completion certificate, at least some of their goals and objectives should relate to their life after school. These goals should address factors such as vocational training, functional life skills and foundational academic skills.
Parents should still be getting progress reports for their children if they are on a modified program. These reports should contain written comments that relate to the student’s personalized goals.

*Please note, some accommodations are not suitable or practical for all situations and post-secondary institutions have their own policies in place for the adaptations they are willing to make to a program.

**Please note the information about Individualized Education Plans was based on information for students attending school in British Columbia. Individualized Education Plans are commonly used in educational settings, but the information here may not be consistent with the requirements of education systems outside of British Columbia.
Did you know that Garforth Education has created two online courses, A Parent’s Guide to IEPs and A Teacher’s Guide to IEPs? These courses were designed to give you a clear understanding of the IEP Process and they guide you through the steps you should take to prepare for IEP meetings.

Be sure to check out the more information about IEP’s on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.
If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about IEP (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com


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Your IEP Questions Answered

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 11, 2019 | IEP, Parents

What is an IEP?

An IEP is an Individualized Education Plan, and it is developed for students with special needs. It is a document that summarizes their needs and how their program has been individualized to meet their needs.

It includes the student’s goals, the steps to be taken for an individual to achieve these goals, and how their progress towards these goals will be judged. It lists any adaptations, modifications, and additional services the student will receive and how/who will deliver these services.

What is an IEP for?

An IEP formalizes the decisions and processes made in an IEP meeting that link the student’s assessments with their programming. It provides the individuals involved with a record of the student’s program and serves as the basis for any reporting on the student’s progress based on the goals and objectives agreed upon in the IEP meeting.
 
The IEP documents any supports, adaptations, and modifications for the student’s educational program. Most importantly, an IEP provides students and their parents an opportunity to have input in their individualized planning process.

What MUST an IEP contain?

An IEP is not meant to document every single aspect of a student’s program.

There are three things an IEP must contain:  
  • It must include any modifications to the student’s program, specifically any goals or outcomes that are unique to the student and not found in the applicable program guide for the student’s grade. 
  • It must include a list of any support services the student requires to achieve their personal goals. 
  • It must contain a list of any adaptations needing to be made to the student’s educational materials, instructional strategies or methods of assessments.

What SHOULD an IEP contain?

There are several things that, while not required to be in an IEP, should be included in it:
  • The IEP should include information about the student’s current level of achievement and where they are receiving their education.
  • It should have all the names of the personnel who will be supporting the student throughout the school year.
  • It should state the period of time the current IEP is valid and how it will be reviewed the following year.
  • ​It should provide evidence of evaluation and or review of previous IEP goals and objectives. 
  • ​When appropriate, it should list plans for the student’s next transition point in their education.

What does an IEP look like?

The length and content of an IEP will vary depending on the needs of the child. Some students only require minimal adjustments to their learning outcomes, and this can be completed in a brief one-page document. Others with more complex needs will require a detailed report that addresses the comprehensive plans and accommodations as are necessary for the student. The format of your child’s IEP will depend on the school district they attend.

Who needs an IEP?

An IEP is created for students with special needs who require changes to the standard educational program. Students with special needs require an IEP if they require more than just minor adaptations to educational materials, instructional methods, or the manner of assessments.

Students who have their educational program modified, so they are not working on the prescribed learning outcomes of the curriculum require an IEP.

Students who require remedial help of 25 hours or more in an academic year from someone other than their classroom teacher for them to meet the expected learning outcomes require an IEP.

There are times when an individual with special needs would not require an IEP. Some students may not require any or only minor adaptations to educational materials, instructional or assessment methods.

Students do not need an IEP if they do not require any modifications to the learning outcomes for their educational program.

Students with special needs who require 25 hours or less in an academic year of remedial instruction time by a person other than their classroom teacher for them to meet the expected learning outcomes do not require an IEP.

Who is involved in the IEP process?

Creating an IEP is a collaborative process involving a group of members chosen specifically to help the student reach their goals.

The IEP team will typically include teacher(s), administrative staff, support personnel such as educational assistants, and representatives of the appropriate district, community, and regional agencies needed to best support the student. The number of people involved in the IEP and the number of people involved will depend on the particular student’s needs. If a student has a learning disability, the team will likely be smaller than an individual with multiples issues.

Schools are required to invite the parents of the individual in question to be part of the consultation process for the IEP. Depending on the circumstances the student themselves will also have the opportunity to contribute to the planning of their IEP.

Where does someone need to have an IEP?

Students with special needs in Kindergarten through grade twelve in the public education system. Private schools will often have a similar document for their students with special needs, but they are not always referred to as IEPs.

When is an IEP created?

An IEP is created for a student as soon as is practical for the school once the student has been identified to the school board. Once the IEP has been created, it needs to be reviewed once a school year. In some instances, a student’s IEP may be reviewed more than once a year.

Why is an IEP created?

An IEP is created to provide accountability for a student’s individualized goals. It discusses how these goals will be met and assessed.
The IEP lists any additional services a student will receive and how these services will be delivered. It contains any changes that have been made to the student’s program such as accommodations and modifications.

The IEP provides information on how a student’s teacher(s) should monitor their growth and progress throughout the school year. It serves as an ongoing record of the student’s progress through school, and it helps to provide continuity in their educational goals from year to year.

The IEP is vital in supporting the student through the various transitions they go through before, during, and after their time in the school system.

How is an IEP created?

An IEP is a living document that is created with a collaborative group of individuals working together to create the best program for the student.

Creating an IEP involves a dynamic cycle of planning the IEP, creating the document, monitoring the progress made on the goals stated in the IEP and evaluating to ensure the goals were appropriate for the student and that they are making progress towards the goals.

*Please note the information about Individualized Education Plans was based on information for students attending school in British Columbia. Individualized Education Plans are commonly used in educational settings, but the information here may not be consistent with the requirements of education systems outside of British Columbia.
Did you know that Garforth Education has created two online courses, A Parent’s Guide to IEPs and A Teacher’s Guide to IEPs? These courses were designed to give you a clear understanding of the IEP Process and they guide you through the steps you should take to prepare for IEP meetings.

 
Be sure to check out the more information about IEP’s on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about IEP (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com


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Individualized Education Plan (IEP) Glossary

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 15, 2019
There are so many different terms that parents need to understand when it comes to Individualized Education Plans (IEP). It can be very stressful going into an IEP meeting or reading through documentation about supports available to your child, and the last thing you want to happen is not being sure if you understand what is being said.

This is a glossary of common terms related to Special Education and IEPs that can be used for reference when you are preparing for an IEP meeting.

IEP Glossary

Adaptation

Adaptations (aka accommodations) are techniques and materials that are used by individuals with special needs to allow them to complete their school work within an easier and more effective manner. This can include the teacher using strategies for assignments and tests that would enable the student to demonstrate their mastery of the concepts required by the learning outcomes of the course. Adaptations do not change the learning outcomes of the course, they may change how these outcomes are presented to the student and, or how, their knowledge of the information is assessed.
Assessments

Assessment is a broad term used to describe the process of collecting information about a student’s performance in a specific area. This information is then used to make educational decisions for the student.

Assistive Technology (AT)

Assistive technology is any piece of equipment an individual with special needs uses to help them function or learn in the environment they are in. Assistive technology can be something as simple as using a highlighter on tests to help identify the important concepts in a test question or something more advanced like a using a device with text to speech software that allows text to be read to them.

Behaviour Intervention Plan (BIP)

A behaviour intervention plan includes strategies designed to prevent and stop the problem behaviour. The strategies are typically designed to teach and reward positive behaviour with the goal of the student being educated in the least restrictive environment.

Curriculum

The curriculum is the knowledge and skills that are to be learned by students in a given grade. In British Columbia, these are referred to as the Learning Outcomes.

Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction uses teaching strategies that allow for a wide range of abilities and learning styles. It can address content, process, procedures, methods of delivering instruction, methods for assessing learning, and ways to communicate learning.

Disability

A disability is a condition that is recognized by law and qualifies an individual to receive an Individualized Education Plan.

Goals and Objectives

Goals and objectives are a written component that is included in the IEP. It lists the specific skills unique to the student, and they are expected to be achieved within the school year. The goals and objectives do not have to be limited to academics. They can include functional skills the student will require in everyday life. These goals and objectives need to be both reasonable and measurable.

Inclusion

Inclusion is a principle stating that all students are entitled to equitable access to their education. This does not necessarily mean their learning will take place in an integrated environment with their general education peers. It means the student will be able to participate and interact with others.

Individualized Education Plan (IEP)

An IEP is an annually written document that is developed for a student with special needs. It describes how the student’s education is different from their peers by stating any additional services they require to meet their needs and how these educational needs will be met. The IEP includes individualized goals and objectives, any adaptations or modifications that will be made to their educational program, and the measures that will be used for tracking their achievement.

It is created by a team that consists of the student’s parent or guardian, a general education teacher, a special education teacher, the principal or vice-principal, and other school-employed professionals based on the individual student’s needs. Depending on the situation, students may be included in at least part of the meeting.

Integration

Students with special needs are included in educational settings with their peers who do not have special needs. The students with special needs are provided with the appropriate individualized supports in the form of adaptations and modifications to allow them success in their assigned learning environment (typically the regular classroom setting).

Learning Support Services

Another term for Special Education Services refers to the services within a school or school district that provide direct and or consultive support for the individual with special needs and their teacher.

Least Restrictive Environment

The least restrictive environment is generally thought to be the general education classroom where students with special needs can be educated with their peers. The goal is for students with special needs to spend the maximum possible time in the regular classroom.

Mainstreaming

Mainstreaming is an old concept from the early years of the integrated movement and has been replaced by the term “integration.” It refers to the idea that every child should be placed in the least restrictive environment. Mainstreaming generally involves placing students with special needs into the general education classroom with their peers instead of into a segregated classroom. It allows the use of adaptations and modifications in the general education classroom.

Modification

A modification requires a change in the student’s curriculum or instruction that substantially alters the learning outcomes for the subject. They are instructional and assessment related decisions made to accommodate a student’s special needs. Modifications consist of individualized learning goals and outcomes. They should only be considered for students with special needs significant enough to prohibit them from learning the learning outcomes in the curriculum (i.e. students with limited awareness of their surroundings, those with fragile mental or physical health, those who are medically or cognitively challenged)

Neighbourhood School

The neighbourhood school is the catchment school a child would attend based on their home address.

Parent Report

A parent report is a document parents write about their child. It is an excellent way to document their child’s strengths, weaknesses and successes in different environments such as home, school and within the community. It provides educators with a more complete view of your child.

Placement

Placement does not refer to a location, it refers to a set of services. It is a unique combination of facilities, personnel, location and or equipment required to provide instruction to meet the goals for a student as specified in their IEP.

School-Based Team

This is the team made of personnel within the school that has a formal role in providing support for the classroom teacher. They help the teacher to develop and implement instructional or management strategies in the classroom. The school-based team coordinates support resources for a student with special needs within the school.

Self-Advocacy

Self-advocacy refers to the development of a specific set of skills and understanding that allow an individual to explain their disability and their needs to others. It involves the ability to cope positively with attitudes of peers, parents, teachers and employers they discuss their disability with.

Special Education

Special Education is the instruction that is specifically designed to meet the unique needs of a child. It is designed to take the individual’s needs into account while trying to provide them access to the general education curriculum. Special education is provided for the student at no extra costs to the family. Identification of a child to a special education program typically requires a formal assessment by a qualified professional.

Transition

A transition is when an individual moves from one environment to another at crucial points in their lifetime. These include going from home into preschool or daycare, preschool to kindergarten, elementary school to middle school, middle school to high school, high school to adult life.

Transition Plan

A transition plan coordinates a set of activities designed to promote the movement from one environment to another during the significant transitions of a student’s life. Transition goals are determined by the IEP team and include a set of goals and activities to smooth the transition. These goals can be both functional and academic.

*Please note the information about Individualized Education Plans was based on information for students attending school in British Columbia. Individualized Education Plans are commonly used in educational settings, but the information here may not be consistent with the requirements of education systems outside of British Columbia.
Did you know that Garforth Education has created two online courses, A Parent’s Guide to IEPs and A Teacher’s Guide to IEPs? These courses were designed to give you a clear understanding of the IEP Process and they guide you through the steps you should take to prepare for IEP meetings.

Be sure to check out the more information about IEP on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about IEP (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

A Parent’s Guide to IEP Meetings

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 17, 2019 | IEP, Parents

A Parent’s Guide to IEP Meetings

There is no way to deny it, IEP meetings are stressful and hard for any parent. I know professionals who go into meetings as advocates for other families regularly but still struggle with attending an IEP meeting for their own child.

These meetings are hard for parents (and students if they participate in the meeting) because by going to the IEP meeting you must come face to face with your child’s diagnosis again. It can bring up many of the same emotions you felt the first time you heard your child’s diagnosis.

In the first few IEP meetings, you attend for your child, you may still be just coming to terms with the diagnosis and learning what it really means. Sitting in a room across the table from a group of professionals about ‘what’s wrong’ with your child and how they want to ‘fix it’ is intimidating.

Yes, IEPs are now focusing on becoming strengths-based and having the students develop a growth mindset, but the bottom line is they are needed because the child is somehow different.

There are several things you can do in order to prepare for your child’s IEP meeting to help make it a success.

IEP Meeting Preparation

  • Leading up to the meeting, keep a note pad or a file that you can jot down things you would like to bring up during the IEP meeting.
  • Prepare an IEP Binder for your child and keep it up to date. An IEP binder is a great way to keep all the paperwork related to your child’s educational needs organized and in one place. What you decide to put into your child’s binder is up to you and will depend on your child’s diagnosis. There is no point in having a section that is not relevant to your child’s situation. However, bear in mind that the documentation you save may be used in future legal proceedings, should you ever decide to go forward with a human rights case.
  • About Me Page: This is a significant page that should always be kept at the front of the binder. It is meant to serve as a reminder about who your child is as an individual, and it can provide insight to those who work with them about their life outside of school. This is a great place to have your child answer questions regarding their take on their education. Adults sometimes find it surprising how insightful a child can be about how to make improvements to help them learn. Some of the questions you can ask your child are:
  • What do you like best about school?
  • ​What are your favourite activities to do at home and at school?
  • ​What are the three wishes you have for school?
  • ​What will you be when you are older?
  • ​How can we help you the most at school?
  • ​Which way do you learn the best?
  • ​If you could change one thing about school, what would it be?
  • Persons Involved and Their Contact Information: I think this is a must in all IEP binders because it provides a place where you can turn when you need it. Your child’s Personal Education Number (PEN) should also be recorded at the beginning of this section. It should have a list of every member of the multidisciplinary team at the school level who works with your child such as the principal, vice-principal, teachers, support staff and any specialists who work with your child on a regular basis. You should list who they are, what they do, the different ways you can contact them, their availability times, and their preferred method for contact to occur. Also, record any documentation that you have personally given to each individual.
  • ​Communications: In the communications section, it is a good idea to keep an index of the different conversations you have had with educational professionals. Record date the date, time and length of conversations. Plus, be sure to follow up all informal discussions with a brief email to ensure the educator has documentation of the conversation you had with them. Be sure to include the points you discussed and the future action either of you agreed to take. Print off a copy of all communication and highlight the recipients’ names. File in date order.
  • ​Evaluations: In this section, you should keep a dated copy of all requests and referrals to the school for evaluations, a copy of the consent to evaluate the student and any evaluations that have been done for your child. If you have had any private evaluations done, it is up to your discretion if you would like to include them here. You should also record which educators to whom you have personally delivered your child’s psychoeducational assessments.
  • ​IEP: In this section, you should have a copy of your child’s current IEP and any previous IEPs they have had. It can be helpful to have a copy of the most recent Special Education Services: A Manual of Policies, Procedures and Guidelines included in this section.
  • ​Report Cards / Progress Notes: In this section, you should include all of your child’s report cards and progress notes from the teacher.
  • ​Behaviour: In this section include any reports or communication regarding your child’s behaviour.
  • ​Medical: If your child has any medical concerns, this section should include information about any conditions and treatments that are appropriate. You may also wish to keep a copy of your Family Practitioner’s diagnosis and CRA Tax Benefit form in this section.
  • ​Supportive Information: In this section, include any resources that you think you may reference in your IEP meeting so you can provide them if requested. This is also where you can keep your ‘Cole’s notes’ of your child’s conditions to use as a quick reference.
  • Review your child’s reason for needing an IEP, recent report cards and communications you have had with the school. You probably remember the general reason and the typical day to day challenges they face but review their evaluations to remind yourself of the whole picture of their diagnosis. Create a cheat sheet of the important facts you want to remember and address during the IEP meeting, so you don’t forget to bring any of them up.
  • Prepare a short message for the people who will be attending your child’s IEP meeting. This message should include any goals, objectives or strategies you wish to discuss with them during the meeting. Be sure to reference the notes you have been taking in the weeks leading up to the IEP meeting.
  • ​Remember, you don’t have to go alone to this meeting. You can take a trusted family member or friend, a professional with knowledge about your child and or a local advocate with knowledge about your child’s needs and the resources that can be available for your child.
  • ​Prepare an IEP meeting go bag. In this bag be sure to include your child’s IEP binder, Kleenex, candies or chewing gum (use this during the meeting to help calm yourself), water bottle, a notebook, pens and if you want, a framed picture of your child.

Things you can do during your IEP Meeting:

  • Start the meeting by thanking everyone for coming to the meeting and working together to make the school the best experience they can for your child.
  • During the meeting, make sure you state the concerns you have for your child and any suggestions you might have for addressing these concerns.
  • ​Take the time to really listen to how the educators respond to your comments and are open to discussion about your suggestions.
  • ​Do not be afraid to ask questions if you need clarification on what they are saying. Keep asking questions until you understand.
  • ​Create a timeline and checklist for future follow-up.
  • ​Try to end the meeting on a good note by thanking everyone for their contributions to the meeting.
  • ​Be sure to take detailed notes during the meeting. Even better, if you have brought someone with you, ask them to take notes during the meeting for you. This way you can focus on being present and absorbing the information during the meeting while still having notes from the meeting to refer to after the discussion.

After the IEP Meeting:

  • It is good practice to send a summary of your notes from the meeting to the members of the IEP meeting to make sure you are on the same page.
  • If your child has attended the IEP meeting, you may wish to have a private time together to ask for his/her thoughts on the meeting and how to go forward in a positive manner.
  • If both parents attended the meeting, take a moment to discuss the meeting privately without your child.
  • ​If only you attend the meeting, discuss or prepare a summary for your child’s other parent. Recognize that IEP meetings can bring back bad memories for a parent if he/she had learning difficulties in school as a child.
IEP meetings give you, as the parent, a chance to take an active role in the decisions made for your child and their education.

Remember, everyone in the IEP has the same goal, to provide the best educational outcome for your child. While everyone in the meeting has a common goal, you may not have the same ideas on how to reach that goal.

You do not have to agree with every suggestion brought up in the IEP meeting. You can say no to a suggestion you don’t agree with. If you are turning down one of their suggestions, try to be kind with the words you choose and do your best to provide another solution to the same issue.
Did you know that Garforth Education has created two online courses, A Parent’s Guide to IEPs and A Teacher’s Guide to IEPs? These courses were designed to give you a clear understanding of the IEP Process and they guide you through the steps you should take to prepare for IEP meetings.

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If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of IEP meetings (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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IEP 504

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 5, 2020 | IEP

I.E.P or 504 PLAN
** A guest post by Diana Prowitt **

I.E.P or 504 PLAN

When a child needs help educationally there are two choices, a 504 Plan and an IEP. Both can provide accommodations and supports but the only one allows for special education services and specialized instruction.

There’s a lot of really specific legalese used to answer the who, what, where, when, why, and how. I’m not a lawyer, I don’t practice law or give legal advice, I’m a parent first and I’m going to talk like a parent. We’ll cover the key differences and point you in the right direction to get more info.

ABOUT THE LAW

There are 2 separate laws: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

Section 504 is a civil rights law that protects individuals with disabilities against discrimination and provides the same access to education their typical peers would have. It’s designed to remove barriers and level the playing field. So, a 504 Plan wouldn’t change what a child learns but how they learn it.

IDEA ensures that a child meeting the criteria for special education receives a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) through an Individualized Education Program or IEP. The IEP provides special education services, which may include some of the same accommodations as a 504 plan. An IEP also includes goals, specialized instruction, modifications, related services, and specified placement in order to prepare a child for their future.

So in a nutshell, if education was a book on a tall shelf a 504 Plan would be a stepstool to reach it and an IEP would bring the book down, open it, set goals and benchmarks with a way to track your progress, maybe change the text to pictures, read it to you, explain in alternate concepts, break it down in smaller easier to read books, etc…

ELIGIBILITY

A 504 Plan requires the student to have a physical or mental impairment that limits one or more major life activities or have a record of such impairment or be regarded to have such an impairment. The 504 Plan can be in place throughout a person’s academic lifetime regardless of age and can transfer into college and technical schools.

An IEP requires a formal evaluation process which includes educational testing and other assessments. The child needs to have a diagnosed disability and the disability needs to adversely impact the child’s ability to learn. There are 13 named learning disabilities that can cover physical, mental, emotional, and behavioral which are used to qualify the child. A child with an IEP can be covered from preschool, age three, through high school graduation or their 22nd birthday.

It is important to note that a diagnosed disability does not guarantee an IEP. For example, ADHD is one of the 13 diagnoses covered under Other Health Impairments in IDEA, some children with ADHD might not require any special education services in order to access their education. In that case, a 504 might be used for accommodations like a quiet testing environment or additional time for assignments.

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT and OTHER INFORMATION

One interesting area where 504 Plans and IEPs differ is parental involvement. While both require parental notification, only the IEP requires parents to be involved in the process.

For an IEP a parent is considered an equal team member and must be involved in the design and decision-making process. Parents must be invited to participate in all meetings, they also have rights and protections when they disagree with a proposed change to the IEP. IEP meetings are required to be held at the minimum every year in order to review and renew the IEP. A parent may also request and be granted a meeting at any time deemed necessary.

While a school must notify parents of decisions and changes to their child’s 504 Plan and a parent may provide input, they are not required to invite the parent to the meeting or grant meeting requests outside of normally scheduled meetings. There is also no hard and fast rule as to how often the 504 plan is reviewed, the law only states periodical review which is normally annually.

While both an IEP and 504 are legally enforceable, only the IEP is required to be a written document that contains specific areas of information. Contrarily, the 504 Plan only has to have the accommodations on record, not in an actual document.

KEY TAKEAWAY

If you suspect your child is struggling in school, or if your child has a diagnosed disability you can request an educational evaluation. The evaluation will determine if your child is eligible for an IEP or if a 504 Plan can be used to assist in your child’s education.

Regardless of the type of support received, you can and should have a voice in your child’s education.

You DO NOT have to navigate the process alone. There are resources and services available to guide and support you through the special education journey. 

AUTHOR BIO

Diana is a special needs mother, Master IEP Coach®, and founder of Special Education Advocacy LLC. She lives in SW Pennsylvania with her husband Jeff, three sons and granddaughter where she works from her home office serving clients across the US.

Years of climbing through the rubble of a broken special education system to get her son the supports and services he needed fueled her passion for advocacy. Diana vowed to use her personal experience and specialized training to change the course for other families.

Diana has a strong background in placement issues and believes in a collaborative approach to working with the IEP team. She is committed to providing honest and supportive coaching, consultation, and advocacy for parents 1:1 and in groups, as well as training for team members and support staff in order to design and implement appropriate IEPs that are as individualized as the child they serve.
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If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of IEP 504 PLAN (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Specific Learning Disorders

by Dr. Garforth | May 3, 2019 | Learning Disabilities, Parents
According to the DSM-5*, the term Specific Learning Disorder (aka SLD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a biological origin that affects an individual’s academic skills, not their developmental milestones.

Let me break down some of those terms for you and then provide you with a definition that you can understand.

Neurodevelopmental-> has to do with how the brain develops

Disorder-> refers to a disruption in functioning; in the psychological field, the term disorder is used instead of disability

Biological origin-> refers to the condition being part of who the person is, not caused by an outside source

Academic skills-> things learned in school such as reading, writing, spelling and mathematics

Developmental milestones-> these are the expected stages of development that typically follow a specific order

In other words, a specific learning disorder is a brain-based disorder that affects the way individuals learn how to read, write, spell, count and answer math questions.

Categories of LSD

An individual with a specific learning disorder in reading will have problems with at least one of the following:
  • Reading words accurately (decoding)
  • Read slowly (fluency)
  • Have problems understanding what they have read.
Individuals are sometimes said to have dyslexia, a reading disability or a learning disability.
An individual with a specific learning disorder in written expression will have problems with at least one of the following:
  • Spelling words accurately
  • Their writing will have issues with grammar, sentence structure and punctuation
  • Their writing may be challenging to read because it is disorganized and they cannot get their ideas across clearly
An individual with a specific learning disorder in mathematics will have problems with at least one of the following:
  • Understanding number concepts such as counting and making comparisons (number sense)
  • Memorizing their math facts such as basic addition, subtraction and multiplication
  • Performing math calculations
  • ​Difficulty using mathematical reasoning
Individuals are sometimes said to have dyscalculia, a math disability or a learning disability

Severity of SLDs

As with other disorders, there are varying degrees to which an individual can have a specific learning disorder.

Mild
Individuals with a mild specific learning disorder have difficulties with one or two areas, but they can manage when they are provided with the right accommodations and or the proper supports.

These accommodations and support are especially important while the individual is attending school.

Moderate
Individuals with a moderate specific learning disorder will likely require some intensive, specialized teaching to learn the skills they need to be competent in their areas of difficulty.

Once they have received the appropriate remediation, they will continue to need some accommodations and/or support in some areas to complete different assignments and activities.

Severe
Individuals with a severe specific learning disorder struggle in many different areas and they will likely require ongoing, intensive, individualized interventions to learn the expected content in school.

They will probably need to use appropriate accommodations, assistive technology and strategies at home, in school and in the workplace. Even with these supports in place, they may not be able to be as efficient at completing their tasks.

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria

The DSM-5 has 4 criteria that must be met based on a ‘clinical synthesis’ of an individual’s developmental, medical, familial and educational history, school reports and a psychoeducational assessment.

This means that multiple aspects of the individual will be looked at from different perspectives to ensure the diagnosis of a specific learning disorder is appropriate for the individual.

1. An individual must show difficulties learning and using an academic skill such as:
  • Problems decoding words; reading is slow and requires a significant amount of effort
  • Difficulty understanding what has been read
  • Poor spelling
  • ​Trouble expressing themselves in writing
  • ​Problems with mastering number sense, number facts and/or performing calculations
  • ​Difficulty with math reasoning. The individual must have had the difficulty for at least six months even after being provided with targeted interventions.
2. The skills they are having difficulty with are substantially and quantifiably below those expected for individuals their age. These difficulties interfere with the individual’s daily activity. Specific learning disorder must be diagnosed through a comprehensive, clinical assessment using individually administered standardized achievement measures.

3. The difficulties must begin during school years but may not become fully apparent until the demands in those areas are tested.
For example, someone who has a specific learning disorder with an impairment in reading may not have any problems with reading the actual words. The may have issues with reading comprehension so their specific learning disorder may not be apparent until they have to start to learn information from what they are reading.

4. The specific learning disorder must not be explained better by another primary issue such as an intellectual disability, problems with the individual’s vision or hearing, not speaking the language of instruction fluently, a medical or neurological condition, psychosocial adversity or not being provided with adequate instruction.

SLD & Comorbidity

Comorbidity means that two or more conditions can occur at the same time. Specific learning disorder commonly cooccurs in individuals with ADHD, Communication Disorders, Developmental Coordination Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Anxiety Disorders, Depressive and Bipolar Disorders.

If an individual has another diagnosed condition, it does not necessarily exclude the diagnosis of a specific learning disorder. It does, however, make the differential diagnosis more difficult for professionals. It is more challenging to diagnose comorbid disorders because the conditions listed above also interfere with an individual’s daily activity.

This means the professional has to tease out whether the symptoms are best described by one condition or if in fact, the individual has both the condition and a specific learning disorder. This requires expert clinical judgement that has experience in both of the disorders in question.

Things to remember about SLD

  • Specific learning disorders will present differently in different settings and across a lifetime. There are some activities where the individual’s difficulties will not be apparent.
  • It is possible for an individual to be considered gifted and have a specific learning disorder. These individuals may be able to use their gifts to disguise their specific learning disorder until the demands on their learning or methods that their knowledge is assessed provide too much of a barrier.
  • With the proper accommodations and support, an individual with a specific learning disorder can lead a very successful life.
  • ​Specific learning disorders are persistent and lifelong.
  • ​Problems in other academic areas such as history and science might actually be due to the student’s specific learning disorder
  • With the appropriate intervention, individual’s with specific learning disorder can succeed!
*The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is a handbook published by the American Psychiatric Association. It is used by professionals to guide in the diagnosis of different conditions. It provides a description of the condition with a list of symptoms and additional criteria for the diagnosis of the condition.

Reference:

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

Changes to the SLD criteria in DSM-5

by Dr. Garforth | Jun 21, 2019 | Learning Disabilities
The diagnosis, Specific Learning Disorders, is technically still pretty new, but it does not mean it is a new disorder. In reality, it is the rebranding of Specific Learning Disabilities to reflect how it is perceived in the medical field and includes two significant changes to the diagnostic criteria based on the latest research in the field of Special Education and Educational Psychology.

Why did the change the name of the of Specific Learning Disability to Specific Learning Disorder?

In 2013, the term Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) replaced the term of Specific Learning Disability. This change was made by the American Psychiatric Association when they published the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM-5).

 If you think of the following medical diagnoses: Autism Spectrum Disorder, Thyroid Disorder, Bipolar Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder or Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder; all of these terms use the word disorder instead of disability. In medicine, a disorder is considered to be an abnormality of function, whereas the term disability typically refers to someone’s physical body.

The change from ‘disability’ to ‘disorder’ in 2013, allows the term SLD to be more in line with other terminology for recognized medical conditions. It also highlights the neurodevelopmental nature of an SLD, meaning the brain of an individual with an SLD interprets information in a different manner than someone without an SLD.

Isn’t it wonderful that the medical world recognizes the existence of neurologically-based learning problems. Don’t get upset if they call these problems a learning disorder rather a learning disability.
Larry B. Silver M.D.

Changes in Diagnostic Criteria

The change in terminology also brought two significant changes to the diagnostic criteria. These changes were made, so the diagnostic criteria reflected the advances in research on SLD since the publication of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (Text Revision).

In the DSM-5, SLD became an overarching category with specifiers relating to the three major academic areas (reading, writing, and mathematics). This means that at the time of assessment, the report can categorize the areas that are affected by the SLD. An individual with an SLD can have an impairment in one, two or all three of these areas.

The second significant change was the removal of the need for an individual to have an IQ-achievement discrepancy. Instead, individuals must meet all four of the following criteria:
  • Their symptoms must have occurred for a minimum of 6 months even after receiving extra help or targeted interventions
  • This means that an individual is not just experiencing the symptoms because they did not receive proper instruction for the area of difficulty.
  • They must be performing below the expected age level based on a standardized test of achievement and through a clinical assessment.
  • This means while they do not have to have a discrepancy between their IQ and their achievement, they do have to be performing below what is expected for their age.
  • These difficulties must have started during the individual’s school years.
  • There has to be a history of difficulty throughout the individual’s childhood and adolescent years. This does not mean someone cannot be diagnosed with an SLD as an adult. It just means they must provide evidence that they had these difficulties during their formal education.
  • Other causes such as disorders or adverse conditions must be ruled out before a diagnosis of SLD is given.
  • This does not rule out the possibility for comorbid or co-occurring conditions, it just means that professionals have to take extra care in the diagnostic process.
  • ​If there is another medical disorder that better explains why an individual is showing these symptoms, the clinician must decide if the diagnosis of an SLD is still appropriate.
  • ​If the individual is experiencing the symptoms because they have not provided with appropriate educational opportunities, the individual should not be provided with an SLD.

What do these changes mean?

The abandonment of the IQ-Achievement discrepancy requirement for a diagnosis of an SLD was a significant step forward for diagnostic and intervention purposes. This means that children can be identified after six months of showing struggles with reading, writing or mathematics, instead of waiting for the gap between their IQ and their achievement on a standardized test to be big enough to meet the diagnostic criteria for an SLD.

This means that children can be identified as having an SLD during the first few years of school when interventions are most efficient and effective. Early identification means the gap between the achievement of these individuals and their peers will not be as large which means there is less material that needs to be covered in order to ‘catch up’ to their peers.

Early identification allows students to access any accommodations and assistive technology they need to succeed from early on in their educational career.

The changes to the diagnostic criteria in the DSM-5 allow for a collaborative approach during the diagnostic process. It requires educators, educational psychologist and parents to create a portfolio that includes both formal and informal school records, samples of the individual’s work, information regarding the individual’s instructional history in addition to the formal psychoeducational or clinical assessment.

An SLD is still considered a medical disorder and does have strict diagnostic criteria and does still require a formal psychoeducational assessment. However, the assessment no longer requires the same focus on cognitive processing. This means that the psychoeducational assessment can move its focus from being an assessment for diagnosis to more of an assessment for interventions. This means the report from the psychoeducational assessment can focus more on the best interventions for the individual instead of just highlighting their areas of weakness.
The term Specific Learning Disorder is a clinical diagnosis and not a label, this means in order for someone to be diagnosed with an SLD they have to meet the diagnostic criteria that are set out in the DSM-5.

SLD is not necessarily a synonymous term for ‘learning disability’ which is commonly used in the education system. Just because an individual is considered to have a learning disability in the school system, it does not guarantee that they will meet the diagnostic criteria for an SLD. However, any individual who has been clinically diagnosed with an SLD should be considered to have a learning disability.

If someone was diagnosed with a Specific Learning Disability, they should also meet the diagnostic criteria of a Specific Learning Disorder. If someone did not quite meet the diagnostic criteria for a Specific Learning Disability, they might now reach the diagnostic criteria for a Specific Learning Disorder.

Test Anxiety Strategies

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 7, 2019 | Anxiety

** A guest post by Colleen Wildenhaus **

Effective Ways to Help Children Manage Test Anxiety

Test anxiety is no longer associated with only high school finals and college entrance exams. Sadly, it is being seen in children as young as kindergarten due to the abundance of standardized tests required in most schools. Young children are being tested on their letter/sound fluency, reading fluency, number concepts, and more. School-age children are tested on math facts, reading proficiency, and other state-mandated tests.

These tests are being administered not only for evaluation of school performance and content specific grades but as placement into certain classrooms based on ability levels. Once children enter upper elementary and middle school, the testing stakes are even higher, as the results often dictate class placements, which can affect college decision making.

The impact of prioritizing test results leads to test anxiety in many children. Parents, teachers, and students, however, can implement effective ways in which to minimize the anxiety that arises with these tests.

What is Anxiety?

When anxiety strikes, it shuts down the prefrontal cortex of the brain, which is used for thinking and decision making, while engaging the amygdala, the “fight or flight” response. Given that testing requires rational thought, anxiety disables the process of thinking clearly, making it nearly impossible to focus on and complete the test.

Anxiety is prevalent in children with certain medical conditions, learning disabilities, attention issues, or as a stand-alone disability. Children who are afraid to make mistakes, fear judgment by others, or have low self-esteem due to learning issues are especially susceptible to anxiety during testing.

Ways Teachers and Parents Can Minimize Test Anxiety

Together, teachers and parents can create an environment where children, with or without anxiety, have success during times of testing.
  • Emphasize that the test is only one indicator of a child’s intellectual abilities. By explaining why testing is required and how the results are used can ease some of the anxiety. Make sure children of all ages understand that the test results have no lasting effect on their future. It is imperative that children understand that a poor test score is not solely indicative of their abilities to learn or of their intelligence.
  • Highlight effort and growth over the actual score. You want children to understand that “trying their best” is what matters when taking a test, not the grade that is received. Similarly, you want children to see that, while their score may be low, the growth made from one test to the next is equally, if not more important, in the overall picture of their growth as a student.
  • Speak positively about the tests that are administered. If parents and teachers complain about the tests, children pick up on this negative mindset. You want children to see tests as just another aspect of school, rather than something to be worried about. If parents and teachers become anxious about the tests and the results, children will feed off of this fear.
  • ​Never compare students or siblings with one another. Displaying or celebrating high scores in front of other students bring shame to the students who, given their best effort, were not able to achieve the “desired” score. There should not be a “wall of fame” for any type of test result, whether it be fact fluency, speed and accuracy in reading, or standardized test results. If you must celebrate and honour high achieving students, do it on an individual basis. It is certainly worth celebrating, as a class or a family, the completion of testing and the time and effort it took to prepare for and take the test.
  • ​Create a favorable environment for testing. Make sure testing takes place in the morning when children are fresh. Allow for movement breaks before and after testing. Play calming music during the test. Parents, be sure that your child gets enough sleep and eats a filling breakfast on test days. For more frequent tests (progress monitoring), like DIBLES or timed math facts, make sure that these are administered in a quiet environment away from the eyes of other students. Do your best to hide the timer from view, as many children become focused on the dwindling time rather than the task of completing the test.
  • ​Whenever possible, allow students an opportunity to re-learn the material that they answered incorrectly. Once the material is practiced, offer the test again with half credit for the newly correct answers. This shows children that mastering the material is more important than the test or the grade.

Teachers and Parents Should Moder Test Taking

For students, it is important that they understand the test that they are being asked to complete.
  • Whenever possible, provide sample tests and walk through them as a class. For students doing individualized testing or progress monitoring, make sure that you thoroughly explain what you expect prior to the test. Often students get frazzled in the beginning due to confusion, and it sets the tone for the rest of the test.
  • Practice test taking skills together and if necessary, teach students how to study. For standardized tests, frequently complete questions similar to what they will see on a test. For the end of unit tests offered in the classroom, provide students with a study sheet, explaining how to use the sheet to prepare for the test. It is not fair to surprise children with questions they are not expecting. The goal of a test is to check for understanding of content and material taught. On the study sheet, ask questions using the format that will be on the test. This goes for standardized testing as well. If students will be using technology for the test, make sure they have an opportunity to practice prior to the test.
  • Test-taking skills should be modelled by you as a teacher and parent. Mock up a practice test and share your thoughts aloud as you go through the test. Shed insight into your thought process as you work your way through a test. Be sure to make mistakes and model how to move on from a difficult question.

Test Taking Skills Students Should be Taught

Similar to modelling, parents and teachers can make children aware of strategies to use while taking a test.
  • Explain to children that it is ok to skip a question. If they see a question in which they are unsure of the correct answer, circle it, go on with the test, then come back to this question at the end. Explain that as they move through the test and answer questions in which they know the answer, their confidence will increase. They may also find information throughout the test that helps them with the more challenging questions.
  • For multiple choice questions, explain to students that they should cross out options that are definitely not correct, allowing them to focus on fewer choices when deciding on the correct answer.
  • Rather than looking at the entire test, break it down into sections by either folding the paper in half or drawing a line to segment into smaller sections.
  • ​Let children know that if they truly do not know an answer, guess and move on. It is ok to not know something. Spending a lot of time on one question seldom brings the correct answer to the mind.

Easing Anxiety During the Test

Anxiety calming techniques should not be used for the first time during a test. These calming techniques should be introduced to children in non-anxious situations, allowing them to reference them as needed during a test. These suggestions work well for students who are fidgety and begin to lose focus as well as students who notice that their mind has gone blank.
  • Movement breaks are often allowed for all students. This can be as simple as asking to use the bathroom or get a drink of water. Taking a minute to walk around with a change of scenery can ease rising anxiety during test taking.
  • Controlled breathing can slow the heart rate and lead to more rational thought patterns. Take a deep breath in through the nose, holding it for 5 seconds, then slowly releasing the breath through the mouth. This breathing should be done several times to calm the anxiety.
  • Engaging the 5 senses is a simple and effective way to ease anxiety. Children search the room using their senses. For example, they find 5 things they can see, 4 things they can hear, 3 things they can touch, 2 things they can smell, and 1 thing they can taste (when possible).
  • ​Similar to using the 5 senses calming technique, children can choose a colour and find as many items in the room of that colour.
  • ​Depending on the test being administered, students can use headphones to play calming music or an app like The Calm App. State Testing will not allow any type of device to be used but classroom administered tests should allow for headphone use.
  • ​Once again, depending on the test being given, reminders can be placed on a student’s desk. These reminders can encourage the child to use the test-taking skills taught and modelled by the teacher, breathing or calming techniques, or positive mindset reminders.

Accommodations for Text Anxiety- As Needed

For students with extreme anxiety and/or focus issues, there are accommodations that can be provided through a 504 or IEP as needed.
  • The test can be orally presented via a computer or staff member for students who have dyslexia or struggle to comprehend their own reading.
  • Tests can be given in a small group environment outside of the classroom.
  • Extended time is an option, but seldom helps students who struggle with perfectionism or fear of making mistakes. The extra time just gives them more time to stress about getting the text questions perfect. However, for slow readers or those who need frequent movement breaks, extended time can be useful.
Test taking is now a regular part of most student’s academic experience. While the frequency and format of tests will vary based on grade and school, the pressure remains constant across the board. It is important that children learn how to best handle themselves when faced with tests, as it will make their school experience more successful both emotionally and academical.

Coleen Wildenhauz

Colleen Wildenhaus is the mother of a 13-year-old girl suffering from severe anxiety and OCD. Her blog Good Bye Anxiety, Hello Joy shares with readers the journey her family takes to enjoy the small moments each day, keeping the beast of anxiety from taking away the joy of life. In addition to being a mother and writer, Colleen is a former elementary teacher who holds two Master’s Degrees in Education and a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology. She draws from her expertise as an educator to coach parents and teachers in ways to make school successful for children with anxiety.

Guest Post: Using Movement to Master the Reading/Spelling Code

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 2, 2019 | Instructional Strategies

** A guest post by Nancy Young **

My thanks to Dr. Kathryn Garforth for inviting me to provide teachers and parents with a snapshot as to why and how to integrate movement into reading and spelling instruction and practice. Let’s get moving!

Using Movement to Master the Reading/Spelling Code

Sound /h/ is spelled <h>
Keyword: hop
Action: hop
From Secret Code Actions ™

Using movement to learn – where my journey started…

My passion for integrating movement into the learning process began soon after I started up my private practice in which I taught students who were struggling in the classroom. My students had usually been sitting for much of their school day – spending more time than their classmates at a table or desk because it took so long to do (or try to do) academic tasks. For students diagnosed as ADHD, sitting still for long periods was especially tough.

Whether dealing with attention issues or not, I wished my students could have been playing outside or relaxing instead of sitting in a lesson. Sadly, their weak skills meant they needed to put in extra time and effort outside school to learn what should have been taught in school.

An active person myself, I wondered if my students might enjoy their lessons more if they could just get up and move while they were learning. I started with, “Let’s set up stations around the room and you can move from station to station while you practice!” They loved the stations! Then I moved on to “Let’s act this out!” when we were discussing the meaning and function of a word. When a student needed to learn about contractions, I suggested she model what a contraction does – on the floor! She stretched out and then contracted her body as she expanded and contracted the words! She smiled – just as my other students were smiling as they learned using movement! Lessons were fun for them, for me and for the parents (in my private practice I required that a parent be a part of every lesson).

My repertoire of movements soon grew to include movements for the sound-symbol correspondences of the English code. It’s not easy for a child in grade 4 to accept that they need to go back and learn skills that should have been mastered in kindergarten and grade one. Moving made the needed learning more fun! As a bonus, I observed that the students were so engaged and seemed to master skills more quickly using my special movements.  
Sound /n/ spelled <n>
Keyword: nail
Action: Nail a nail
From Secret Code Actions ™

One day, the mom of one of my students said, “Nancy, you need to create a book with all your movements so other teachers and parents can use them too!” It was a great suggestion! After a few years of work (including the completion of my MEd in Special Education, during which I investigated the supporting research) I was pleased to release my book Secret Code Actions™. Available in two editions, one for teachers and another for parents, this unique resource presents fun movements and activities that help children learn and remember the sounds and symbols in English words. It also contains Clues and Alerts to help teachers and parents better understand what I call the secrets of the code.

My book Secret Code Actions™ is grounded in the current research that says:
There is nothing natural about learning to read.

There is nothing natural about learning to read. It is not a skill we are born to do; we must rewire our brain to be able to read.

  • Physical activity is essential for all children, but children are moving less and less. We need to take advantage of every opportunity to get our children up and moving.
  • Physical activity fuels the brain, increasing engagement and helping recall.
  • Physical activity is beneficial for children with ADHD.
My Ladder of Reading shows the wide range of ease in learning to read, irrespective of intelligence. It makes it clear that explicit instruction and practice are *crucial* for a much larger group than most people realize (both the pink and red groups), and ALL children can be advantaged by learning the fascinating secrets of the written code!

Additionally, my book Secret Code Actions™ is grounded in the current research that says:
Most children are not getting enough physical activity during the day.

  • Physical activity is essential for all children, but children are moving less and less. We need to take advantage of every opportunity to get our children up and moving.
  • Physical activity fuels the brain, increasing engagement and helping recall.
  • Physical activity is beneficial for children with ADHD.
Almost every day there is a new article or study recommending that children move more. Whatever the reason, from spending time on screens to less free play in general, most children are simply not as active as they should be.

Some tips to get you moving! 

Plan your lessons or practice sessions so that you weave in movement throughout:

As part of your warmup:
  • Review previously learned concepts by practicing them using movement.
As a new sound-symbol correspondence is learned or practiced:
  • SAY IT (adult says the first sound in the word “bat” = /b/; child repeats the sound /b/)
  • ​SEE IT (child points to card with the letter b on it)
  • ​MOVE IT! (child pretends to swing a bat)
  • ​(Add on: WRITE IT)
As a brain break or to re-energize a child having trouble focusing:
  • Perform a skill-related movement
As part of lesson closure or at the end of a practice session:
  • Do a movement-based game or activity. 
Even if your space is limited, many movements can be done on the spot. In a small room, a student can run (<r> = /r/) on the spot, pretend to pump (/p/ = <p>), or act as if trying to dodge a page (practicing when to spell /j/ as <dge>). When the weather is cooperating, go and do the movements outside!
When /ŏ/ (short o) is spelled <a>
Action: Walk the Wall!
 from Secret Code Actions™ Chapter 4

Practicing reading/spelling skills using movement is a win-win!

I am passionate about the need to bring movement into the teaching of reading and spelling. I see it as a solution to the lack of time all educators and parents face. It is an engaging way for children to learn skills that are not always easy to master. Using movement to practice the secrets of the code provides unobtrusive and fun opportunities to provide focused learning and to provide the crucial repetition many children need.

During my professional development sessions for teachers, and presentations to parents, I always deliver this message to my audience:

We need to get our children moving as we teach the reading/spelling code!

Then, I get the audience up and moving as we practice a code-based concept!

Are you keen to learn more?

Are you keen to help your child or students learn or practice the secrets of the code using movement? The activities in my book can enhance any reading/spelling program being used in your school or at home. Book owners also have access to free downloads and resources on my website, including a teaching order of the concepts for those not already following a program. The Clues and Alerts will help children and adults learn about fascinating aspects of the English language!
  • Check out some sample pages from my book (both Teacher and Parent Editions) at my website: secretcodeactions.com
  • ​Check out my Youtube playlist demonstrating “Split & Smoosh”, an activity featured in Secret Code Actions™ Parent Edition (and a free download for Teacher Edition owners
  • ​Follow me on social media for up-to-date articles and tips:
Have a blast moving while you are learning!
Nancy Young B.A., M.Ed.
Reading, Spelling, Writing Specialist
British Columbia, CANADA
Nancy Young B.A. M.Ed. (Special Education) is an experienced educator and speaker with extensive knowledge of evidence-based approaches to teaching reading, spelling and writing for both the general classroom and intervention programs. Her areas of specialty include dyslexia, ADHD, giftedness, and ELL. A certified Structured Literacy Teacher and long-time private practice educator teaching children with dyslexia, Nancy provides consulting support for teachers, schools and families across Canada. This includes training, coaching, assessment (Level B) and program development for students with dyslexia.

Supporting Research

Research articles and books supporting the information presented in this blog post can be found in the Resources section of my website.

A PDF of my Ladder of Reading can also be downloaded from my website.

Literacy Screening

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 24, 2019 | Learning Disabilities, Reading Science

Literacy Screening

Most children begin kindergarten excited by the prospect of finally learning how to read. The idea of reading excites them because it opens the door into a world they only had access to when someone else would read to them. They are excited to be able to read for pleasure independently.

Young children want to read the ‘big kid’ books they have always heard older children and adults talk about, like the Harry Potter Series or the Chronicles of Narnia.

However, pleasure reading is not the only reasons children need to know how to read. Reading becomes an essential component for any school-based learning past the primary grades. Once students are in grade four, they are now expected to read to learn. This means they are supposed to be able to independently read, understand what they have read, and learn from what they have read.

Unfortunately, not every child goes to school beginning with the skills they need to become a reader. There are several different reasons someone may have difficulty learning to read including:
  • coming from a low socio-economic background
  • coming from a family of English language learners with parents who cannot read English
  • having a familial history of learning disabilities
  • ​an individual with special needs.
Regardless of the reason why an individual is likely to have difficulty learning how to read, there are ways young children can be identified as being at risk for reading failure through literacy screening.
What if I told you that after spending about 15 minutes conducting a literacy screen with a child, when they are just beginning their educational journey, that I could predict with reasonable certainty whether they would succeed in learning to read?
From that short time with the child, I would also be able to tell you what skills they needed to work on in order for them to become competent readers.

If this child did not receive the interventions based on the recommendations that were made, not only would they be at risk for becoming poor readers, they would also be considered at-risk for developing depression, anxiety and several other mental health problems. Poor literacy skills can lead to individuals dropping out of high school, showing anti-social behaviour and even an increased risk for entering the juvenile justice system.

Several research studies conducted in countries around the world have all come to the same conclusion: that educators can identify children as at-risk for becoming struggling readers by using screening measures with children. This can be done with children even when they are in preschool (e.g. Gaab, 2019).

Research has also shown that between 70-95% of reading disabilities can be prevented or alleviated with the use of early identification and the use of research-based interventions (Barnes, 2007; Greenwood & Abbot, 2007).

This has been shown in school districts that have a wide range of socio-economic backgrounds and with students from various first language backgrounds in the same classroom (e.g. Lipka & Siegel, 2007; Partanen & Siegel, 2014).

Classroom teachers can be taught how to do literacy screening with their students. They can also be taught how to provide the appropriately targeted interventions in the different skill areas their students require help. The teachers can monitor each child in their classroom for progress throughout the year and adjust their teaching to meet the child’s needs.

There are some individuals who are opposed to screening young children to identify them for future reading problems. They are worried that this screening will provide the students with a label and that they would carry that label for life. However, this is not the case, the point of giving these early literacy screens is NOT to provide a diagnosis, and they cannot provide a diagnosis.

The purpose of literacy screening is to give teachers a clear picture of what skills a student has and what skills they don’t have. From this information, they can create a targeted intervention plan for students who need it. This allows the students to receive the appropriate instruction in the skills they are missing. Once they have these skills, they will be able to learn to read at the same time as their peers.

The main reason we need to identify these children as being at risk for reading failure at a young age is that this is the critical period when interventions are most effective. These naysayers need to be reminded that it is much better for educators to intervene early before a problem exists than to have a child experience the humiliation of struggling with learning how to read when their friends seem to be able to do it with minimal effort. Once this damage to their self-esteem has been done, it can never fully be taken away.

Reading interventions are most effective when they are done during the first two years of school. This is a time when children’s brains are designed to be learning a language, and so they are thought to be more receptive to interventions at this time (Gaab, 2019).

Again, numerous research studies from around the world have shown us that most children identified before the second grade as having trouble learning to read can become proficient readers when taught with an appropriate program. Tragically, when students are identified later, the chances that they will catch up to an acceptable reading level drastically decreases (Moats, 2007).

The education system needs to look to research to find out what the best practices are for early identification of children at risk for reading failure.

Every primary school teacher MUST know how to spot children who are struggling with reading. These teachers need to understand how they can intervene so that these children can learn how to read at the same time as their peers. These skills are vital because statistically, every year, there will be at least one student in their class that needs extra help so they can become a competent reader.
References:

Gaab, N. (2019). How can we ensure that every child will learn to read? The need for a global, neurodevelopmental perspective.

International Dyslexia Association.

Lipka, O. & Siegel, L. S. (2007). The development of reading skills in children with English as a second language.Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(2), 105-131.

Moats, L. M. (2007). Whole-Language High Jinks: How to Tell When “Scientifically-based reading Instruction” Isn’t. Thomas B. Fordham Institute.

Partanen, M. & Siegel, L. S. (2014). Long-term outcomes of the early identification and intervention of reading disabilities. Reading and Writing, 27, 665-684.

Does CVC refer to letters or sounds?

by Dr. Garforth | Aug 16, 2019 | Reading Science

** A guest post by Debbie Hepplewite**

The need to distinguish between consonant letters and vowel letters through teaching about ‘the alphabet’ compared to consonant sounds and vowel sounds through teaching about the ‘alphabetic code’

Teachers need to teach about both ‘the alphabet’ and about ‘the alphabetic code’ and distinguish between them. In order to do this, teachers themselves need to be clear about their differences and their uses, and their overlap.

In teaching about the alphabet and the alphabetic code, this involves the terminology of consonants and vowels, letters and sounds, and the use of abbreviations based on capital letters C and V.

I cannot shed any light on the history of origin of abbreviations such as CVC, CCVC, CVCC – that is, the breakdown of words into ‘consonants’ and ‘vowels’ but I’m aware that there are various Twitter conversations taking place illustrating a lack of common understanding of this type of notation with people all presenting themselves as being the authority on whether CVC actually means ‘letters’ or ‘sounds’.

This is no small matter in the field of literacy and requires a common sense approach to clarification.

At the heart of the problem is a simple lack of distinction between whether people mean vowel SOUNDS or vowel LETTERS, and consonant SOUNDS or consonant LETTERS. This need for clarification/definition is the case not only in the ‘conversations’ around the topic, but also in published literature and literacy programmes and terminology and resources intended for training, teaching and learning.

It is no wonder that there is confusion and lack of shared understanding as, more often than not, people FAIL to distinguish whether they mean letters or sounds in their day-to-day conversations and in their specialist literature, material and training provision!

Surely it is not sufficient ever to refer to ‘consonants’ and ‘vowels’ without further qualification of whether the meaning intended by the CVC notation could be either ‘letters’ or ‘sounds’. No wonder there is confusion.

Some people, including those regarded as specialists, are adamant that ‘consonants and vowels are sounds, not letters’ – but this is not really correct because there is such a notion of consonant letters and vowel letters – as in the alphabet.

I suggest that, actually, the vast majority of people will, first and foremost, consider ‘vowels and consonants’ to mean letters and not sounds.

For well over a decade, England has had an official policy for schools to provide systematic synthetic phonics for beginning reading instruction, and universities have been training in the ‘systematic synthetic phonics teaching principles’ – largely, I suspect, through the vehicle of the ‘Letters and Sounds’ (DfES, 2007) publication which was provided for schools at no charge.

Part of my phonics training provision, even in England, needs to feature the difference between consonant and vowel sounds of the alphabetic code – as compared to consonant and vowel letters of the alphabet.

One of my slides asks, ‘How many vowel sounds are there in the English language?’

Usually several people at least in the teaching profession answer ‘five’ and clearly they are thinking of the vowel letters of the alphabet – a, e, i, o, u – and not the vowel sounds.

In other words, they think of ‘vowels’ – even when described and introduced as “vowel sounds” – as vowel letters of the alphabet because that is, arguably, the common and most obvious understanding.

If we are specialists, then, it is our job to raise awareness of the difference between vowel sounds and vowel letters and so on. It is not obvious that CVC, for example, means consonant sound followed by vowel sound followed by consonant sound such as in words: cat CVC /k/ /a/ /t/, chip CVC /ch/ /i/ /p/, push CVC /p/ /u/ /sh/ . (The ‘sounds’ are always denoted in slash marks.)

Many people, in reality, would think this of these words as letter-by-letter when they think of them in terms of ‘consonants’ and ‘vowels’ and therefore notate them letter-by-letter this way: cat CVC, chip CCVC, push CVCC.

That means, we ourselves – everyone – needs to add the qualifier of ‘sounds’ or ‘letters’ and cannot presume that just to refer to ‘vowels’ and ‘consonants’ always means the sounds – because this is not clear and not based on the reality of many people’s, if not most people’s, understanding.

Dependent on various regional and national accents, there are around 20 ‘vowel sounds’ in the English language and around 24 ‘consonant sounds’. I usually denote vowel sounds with red letters shown in slash marks on my overview Alphabetic Code Charts – and denote consonant sounds with blue letters shown in slash marks (see below for link to Alphabetic Code Charts).

People usually agree that there are around 44 of the smallest identifiable sounds (known as ‘phonemes’) in the English language. It is not commonly appreciated, however, that when we bring actual ‘print’ into the picture (the written code), that some graphemes (letters and letter groups that are code for the phonemes) are actually code for ‘combined phonemes’. Take for example the letter ‘x’ which is code for two phonemes /k+s/ as in ‘fox’ and two phonemes /g+z/ as in ‘exam’. Graphemes ‘u’ as in ‘unicorn’, ‘-ue’ as in ‘rescue’, ‘u-e’ as in ‘tube’, ‘ew’ as in ‘new’ are all code for two phonemes /y+oo/.

This explains why the free printable Alphabetic Code Charts I provide list more than just 44 phonemes as they include further units of sound that necessarily are ‘combined phonemes’ such as the examples above.

No Alphabetic Code Chart of the English language can be completely definitive because of various accents but it is important that this variation is not overplayed as an issue – teachers and parents/carers can simply explain the reality of various accents to the learners and say, ‘In our region/country, we tend to pronounce that letter, or that letter group, like this….. .

I strongly advocate that every phonics trainer, or teacher, or phonics programme author, or academic author, establishes the English alphabetic code AS a tangible code chart as the starting point for understanding the complexities of the English language. It is because I think this is an important first step that I provide a range of free Alphabetic Code Charts for different users and uses. We should ideally be able to see posters/charts of both ‘the alphabet’ and ‘the alphabetic code’ in infant and primary classrooms where the English language is taught for reading and spelling/writing.

To make matters even more complicated, a combination of vowel letters and consonant letters are commonly code for the vowel sounds such as letter groups: or, ow, oy, ay, air, ear, aw, al – and many more. Even letters considered to be ‘consonants letters’ such as ‘w’ and ‘y’ are sometimes perceived as code for vowel sounds and sometimes code for consonant sounds.

As you can see, this is not a precise state of affairs – but those people who get bogged down with exact-ness (and arguments are rife as seen via Twitter) often miss the point that what matters most is effective teaching for effective learning. We teach beginners from the age of 3+ in some cases, and remediate children from not much older than that through to adults. In my view, there is such a fine line between preoccupation with some form of scientific precision and definition rather than the practical resources and content that most support teaching and learning and best inform parents and carers aspiring to work in partnership with them. Effective programmes and practices can, and do, differ in their details.

I was really pleased that world-renowned Professor Max Coltheart had this to say about the use of wording re consonants and vowels which confirmed the need to be explicit in meaning:

“If the literature you are reading is about research on reading by psychologists, the terms “consonant” and ‘vowel” (or C and V) will almost certainly be referring to letters (not phonemes). This has been the case for at least forty years.

If instead you are reading work by speech pathologists or speech scientists, the terms “consonant” and ‘vowel” (or C and V) will almost certainly be referring to phonemes (not letters). This has also been the case for a long time.

There’s nothing wrong with either usage, so we just have to accept both. They are both legitimate and they are both longstanding.

If people are worried about being misunderstood when using these terms, then when referring to letters they can use the terms “consonant letter” and “vowel letter”, and when referring to phonemes they can use the terms “consonant phoneme” and “vowel phoneme”.”

 For free printable Alphabetic Code Charts for various users and uses, see here:


Debbie Hepplewhite is a founding committee member of the International Foundation for Effective Reading Instruction – see the forum and blog here for research, recommended reading, practical support and up-to-date developments in the field of literacy:


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A Free Phonological Awareness Screening Tool

by Dr. Garforth | Aug 23, 2019 | Phonological Fridays
Happy #phonologicalfriday! This week’s post is about a FREE screening tool available for Phonological Awareness.

Reading

UNESCO(2006), considers learning to read not only a basic human right but also an instrument that is necessary for achieving other rights.

Unfortunately, there are reports from around the world, even in the most affluent countries, of children struggling to learn how to read the English language.

This is a tragedy because researchers studying reading development know what components are needed in reading instruction. In fact, three national reports done in the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom have come to a consensus on the components that are necessary for effective reading instruction.

Phonological Awareness

One of the essential components for reading instruction is phonological awareness (Scarborough, 1998). Phonological awareness refers to the awareness of sounds in spoken language. It is a key component for learning how to read (e.g. Torgesen & Mathes, 2000; Vellutino, Scanlon & Ried Lyon, 2000).

Individuals with poorly developed phonological awareness have difficulty forming the relationship between letters (graphemes) and their sounds (phonemes). Weakness in phonological awareness is the most common reason for word-level reading difficulties (Stanovich, 1996).

The good news is that difficulties with phonological awareness are fairly easy to detect and phonological awareness can be improved with explicit instruction.

Phonological Awareness Screening

There are several ways that difficulties with phonological awareness can be detected. Fortunately, Dr. David Kilpatrick has made the Phonological Awareness Screening Tool (The PAST Test) available for free to educators for use with their students.

The PAST Test is comparable to other commercially available measures on the market and can be used to monitor students’ progress.
With the proper professional development, teachers can be taught how to administer this screen, interpret the results and plan the appropriate interventions.

Primary teachers could administer this screening tool to each of their students in a morning because it only takes between four to nine minutes to administer per student.

The results from using the PAST Test do not provide students with a label, they simply inform the teacher which students need more help developing their phonological awareness so they can become successful readers.

If a student is struggling with reading but does well on the PAST Test, it means their reading difficulties are almost certainly not due to phonological processing issues. This means further investigation is necessary in order to determine the most appropriate interventions to be used in this circumstance.

If a student has significant problems with phonological awareness, they will likely require more intensive interventions to fully develop this skill.

Thank you to Dr. David Kilpatrick for making the PAST Test freely available to educators so that more students can successfully learn to read from the beginning.

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If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Reference:
 
Stanovich, K. E. (1996). Toward a more inclusive definition of dyslexia. Dyslexia, 2(3), 154-166.

Torgesen, J. K., & Mathes, P. G. (2000). A basic guide to understanding, assessing, and teaching phonological awareness. Pro Ed.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2006). Education for all global monitoring report. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/GMR2006/full/chapt5_eng.pdf

Consonants: Blends and Digraphs

by Dr. Garforth | Sep 13, 2019 | Phonological Fridays, Reading Science
Happy #phonologicalfriday! When begining your quest to learn about teaching phonics, there are several terms that you need to know. This week the focus is on the difference between consonant blends and digraphs (and trigraphs). There are many words in the English language contain consonant blends and consonant diagraphs. It is bennificial for new and struggling readers and spellers to be explicitly taught about these types of consonant sounds. Understanding the difference between these terms gives readers a better explanation of how to approach the pronunciation or spelling of a word. At the surface level, the most fundamental difference between a consonant blend and a consonant digraph is that in a blend, each letter represents it’s sound (phoneme) in the pronunciation of the word. While in a consonant diagraph (and trigraph) the letters represent one sound (phoneme).

Consonant Blends

(aka Consonant Clusters) A consonant blend is when there are two or more consants beside each other in the same syllable, and in the pronunciation of the syllable at least two of these sounds are heard. In the pronunciation of the syllables, each consonant sounds can be heard but they are blended together in a smooth manner. Consonant blends can be found in any syllable of a word but they are most commonly found in the first and last syllables. Some examples of consonant blends include the following letter combinations: bl, gr, sm, tw, scr, nd, str There are two things you must remember about consonant blends:

1. For adjacent consonants to be considered a blend, they must be part of the same syllable. For example, in the word cranberry, the ‘cr’ at the beginning of the word are considered to be a consonant blend because they are two adjacent consonant letters in the same syllable. However, the ‘nb’ in the middle of the word, is not a consonant blend because the ‘n’ belongs to the first syllable of the word and the ‘b’ belongs to the second syllable.

2. A consonant blend containing three or more letters may include a consonant digraph. For example, the word thrill has both a consonant blend ‘thr’ and a consonant digraph ‘th’.

Consonant Digraphs

Consonant diagraphs are when there are two different consonant letters that represent one speech sound (phoneme) that typically is different than either of the consonant sounds the letters represent in the diagraph. Like blends, consonant digraphs can be found in any position of the word. Some common consonant diagraphs are wh, ch, sh, th (voiced and unvoiced). Some phonics systems consider the letter combinations of kn, gn, wr, ck and ng to be consonant diagraphs. Some phonics systems use the term triagraph to refer to three letters (-tch) that when combined together make one sound. Last week, September 7, 2019, the #phonologicalfriday‘s post discussed phonemes. If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up. [yikes-mailchimp form=”1″ submit=”Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog”]

5 Levels of Word Structure

by Dr. Garforth | Jan 17, 2020 | Phonological Fridays, Reading Science
Happy first #phonologicalfriday of 2020 everyone! I hope you have had a good start to the New Year.

I have several hopes for the new decade, and you can help me with one of them! I hope that more educators will learn about the important role phonological awareness plays in learning to read. I hope early childhood educators and teachers will find ways to include different aspects of phonological awareness in their instruction.

Did you know there are several different ways the written word can be examined?

If you have attended presentations by Dr. Louisa Moats, you may be familiar with a slide entitled “How We Recognize Words.” It looks similar to this:
It is important for every teacher to know and understand the difference between these five different levels of word analysis in the English Language.

At the word level, the reader just looks at the word for face value. Experienced readers can do this with thousands of words they have committed to memory. When the word has been committed to memory, a reader can recognize it by sight.

The whole-language method of reading instruction tries to teach young readers to read the whole word by sight, through repeated exposure to the language.

Morphemes are the smallest parts of words that can contain meaning. Morphemes come in various forms.
There are free base elements that are words in their own right (ex. sad) but their meaning can change with the addition of another morpheme (ex. <sad> + <er> = sadder).

Prefixes are morphemes that are found at the beginning of a word and change the word’s meaning (ex. <un> + <fair> = unfair).

Abound base is a base element that cannot occur on its own (ex. <rupt>). Sometimes bound bases are called roots.

Suffixes are morphemes that are found at the end of words (ex. <ed>). When suffixes are added to base elements, they can change the word to a different form (noun, verb, adjective, or adverb).

When a reader looks at a word at the morpheme level, they examine parts of the word for meaning.

At the syllable level, the reader breaks the word into parts that contain one vowel sound with optional consonant sounds attached to it, or a syllable consonant.

There are six different types of syllables closed, open, vowel-consonant – e, the r-colored vowel, the vowel team, and the le pattern.

Once a reader understands these syllable types, they can break the word down into syllables, allowing them to read the word one syllable at a time before trying to blend the syllables together to make the word.

One level lower than the syllable level is the grapheme level. The grapheme is a letter or letter combination that is used to represent one speech sound or phoneme. The grapheme b represents the phoneme /b/.

In order for students to be able to ‘sound words out,’ they must understand the relationship between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds). They must be able to look at a letter and automatically know what sound that letter makes. This is what teachers are trying to teach in phonics lessons.

Once students understand this relationship, they are said to have graphophonemic awareness.

The lowest level a word can be analyzed at is by the individual letters that are found in the word. This is the level that we use when we are communicating how to spell a word, or if someone were to ask you how to say a word, they would tell you each letter found in the word.

In order to become a skilled reader, you must have an awareness of each of these levels. Unfortunately, our current education system does not always put enough time aside for the appropriate instructional time needed for students to fully develop these skills.

I hope this is something we can change in this decade through education and advocation for the important role of phonological awareness in teaching children how to read.

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Phonological Friday: Voiced and Unvoiced Sounds

by Dr. Garforth | Mar 27, 2020 | Phonological Fridays
Happy #phonologicalfriday! This week’s focus is on voiced and unvoiced (voiceless) sounds. No discussion about phonological awareness is complete without a discussion about the difference between voiced and unvoiced sounds.

Voiced

Technically speaking, a voiced sound is a strong sound in which the vocal chords vibrate. All vowel sounds and diphthongs are voiced sounds, but only some of the consonant sounds (/b/, /d/, /g/, /j/, /v/, /z/, /th/ as in that, and /w/ as in wail).

Unvoiced

Unvoiced or voiceless sounds are weak and the vocal cords do not vibrate. There are eight unvoiced consonant sounds (/p/, /t/, /k/, /ch/, /f/, /s/, /th/ as in thin, and /hw/ as in whale). If you put your fingers over your Adam’s Apple (larynx) when you pronounce voiced sounds in isolation, you should be able to feel your vocal chords vibrate. When you pronounce an unvoiced or voiceless sound, you should not be able to feel a vibration. Voiced sounds take a little more effort to produce compared to their unvoiced counterparts. There are eight pairs containing a voiced and an unvoiced sound that many students have difficulty with. They are:
If you practice saying the voiced and unvoiced sounds above, you may notice that that the movement of your mouth and the position of your tongue is the same for both letters. However, if you put your fingers on your vocal chords as you say these sounds you will notice that for one of the sounds (the voiced) you will feel a vibration and the other sound (unvoiced) you will not.

Why is this Important

This subtle difference can be troublesome for some individuals who struggle with telling the difference between the sounds (auditory discrimination). Educators need to understand the difference between voiced and unvoiced sounds because there are several students who struggle to notice the difference between these sounds. This is especially the case for students who have poor phonemic awareness and students who are learning English as an additional language. It is common for poor spellers to have errors in their spelling where they substitute a voiced sound for it’s unvoiced pair or vice versa. For example, when asked to spell the word ‘ball’, the individual may spell ‘pall’ because they were not able to detect the subtle difference between the voiced /b/ and the unvoiced /p/. Someone looking at this spelling with only a basic understanding of phonics may think phonetically speaking this spelling of ‘pall’ for the word ‘ball’ does not make sense. However, with the understanding of the difference between voiced and unvoiced consonant sounds they would be able to determine that the speller struggled to differentiate between the voiced/unvoiced pair of b & p. When working with young students or individuals who struggle with the distinction between voiced and unvoiced sounds, it is helpful to explicitly teach and practice the difference between these sounds. In a classroom or small group setting, a teacher can introduce a pair of sounds at the beginning of the lesson and then discuss how the students can use their fingers to tell the difference between the voiced and the unvoiced sounds. Once the students understand the difference between these sounds, they can ask the students to give a thumbs up for words that begin with a voiced sound and a thumbs down for words that begin with and unvoiced sound. In the beginning, the teacher should work with only one pair of sounds but as the students become more comfortable in the exercise they can practice with the different sounds. It is important to only focus on the beginning sound (onset) of a word when teaching the difference between voiced and unvoiced sounds. Typically voiced consonant sounds may have a weaker, unvoiced sound at the end of a word. This makes words flow together more easily and naturally when you speak (Smith, 2019). Reference: Henry, M. (2010). Unlocking Literacy: Effective decoding & spelling instruction (2nded.). Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co. Smith, R. (2019). Rachel’s English: Ending voiced vs. unvoiced consonants. Retrieved from: https://rachelsenglish.com/ending-voiced-vs-unvoiced-consonants/
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The 4 Phases of Reading and Spelling Development

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 3, 2020 | Phonological Fridays
Happy #phonologicalfriday Everyone!

 
I hope you and your loved ones are safe during this time of Covid-19.

Right now, many of us are facing the reality of having our children at home instead of at school and we are not sure how to best support their learning. This can be very challenging.

One of the most important things you can do as a parent is to focus on your parent-child relationship and not get too upset if acting as a teacher doesn’t work for your relationship. In the long term, it is more important that your main focus is the parent-child relationship.

However, the best way you can help your child learn is by being sure that you are teaching them at their level. In today’s post, I am going to be talking about the four different phases of how reading and spelling develop.

If you take the time to understand what phase your child is at for their literacy development, you will have greater success helping them develop the skills they need and save yourself some frustration.

The 4 Phases of Reading and Spelling Development

It takes years for an individual to become a skilled reader because there are several skills they need to develop as they learn to read. Once you understand which phase your child or student is in, you will be able to decide which activities would be best for them at this stage of development.

Prealphabetic Phase

Children are in this phase before they begin any formal reading instruction.

 
At this point, they understand some basic ideas about print and books. This means while they know that written words on convey spoken messages, they have not discovered that letters represent the sounds in words.

These children may know their letter names, but they are not sure what the letters represent.

They may know how to read some words in context, like the word stop on a stop sign but they would not be able to read it if they say it in a book.

Children might be able to identify more complex words on familiar logos such as food chains like McDonald’s, Burger King or Subway but if they came across the word McDonald’s in a book about Old MacDonald’s Farm they would not recognize it.
If you showed them the following image:
Image Credit: Shubby

They would tell you it said Burger King and not Bubger King. This is considered a form of logographic reading. They are using visual strategies to recognize Burger King’s looks and do not pay attention to the letters within the logo.

Children in this phase can also learn to recognize what their own and other family member’s names look like. What I mean is that they can identify the name when they see it, but they cannot tell you why it is their name.

At this point, the only strategies they have for reading is rote memory, by seeing it in context, or by using visual pattern identification.
Their spelling of words will likely be a random mix of letters and numbers they can form with no logic to their order.

Early Alphabetic Phase

This is when the lightbulb goes on for children when they discover that letters and their corresponding sounds go together to make up spoken words.
 
They are beginning to develop a basic level of phonemic awareness so they can isolate some of the manipulate the sounds found within a word. At the same time, they are learning how to match sounds to their letters.

When they are asked to read, they will often try to sound out the first few letters and then guess at the rest. They should be able to start to sound out phonetic, one-syllable words.

In the beginning, when they are asked to spell a word, they will start out by only representing the letters they hear most clearly in the word. Often children will spell words with some consonant letters but leave out the vowels.

Later Alphabetic Phase

As children learn how to represent all the different speech sounds as letters that are used to create words, they become better at reading and spelling. At first they are slow at sounding out words because they need to focus on matching letters to their sounds but over time this becomes more automatic.

 
As children get more practice reading, they begin to build up a list of known words in their memory. These are words they have read correctly enough times to know them just by looking at them.

At this phase, children begin to internalize information about how the written language works, such as common spelling patterns, morphemes, and how words are used.

Full Orthographic Mapping or Consolidated Phase

At this stage, children are able to pick up a book at their level and read it without struggling with too many of the words they come across. They have a large number of words they can automatically recognize at first glance and it only takes a reading a new word a few times before adding it to their repertoire.

Children have a detailed understanding of how sounds, syllables and meaningful parts of words work together. They are able to manipulate a single sound within a word with little effort.
Be sure to check out the more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.
If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com
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The Essential Components of Reading

by Lynn Givens | Apr 23, 2020 | Reading Science

** A guest post by Lynn Givens **

Reading is an astonishingly complex cognitive process. While we often think of reading as one singular act, our brains are actually engaging in a number of tasks simultaneously when we read. There are five components in the process of learning to read: phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. As children learn to read, they must develop skills in all of these components in order to become successful readers. Struggling readers often have foundational gaps in one of more of these components.

Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness, the highest level of phonological awareness, begins with the knowledge that spoken words are made of up smaller elements called phonemes. For example, the word “ship” has 3 phonemes, /sh/, /i/, and /p/. Phonemic awareness skills involve manipulating these small sounds in spoken words. The two most critical skills in phonemic awareness are the ability to blend phonemes, knowing that /c/ /a/ /t/ is the word “cat”, and the ability to segment phonemes, knowing that “camp” can be separated into the sounds /c/, /a/, /m/, and /p/.

Phonics

Phonics involves mapping these sounds to letters. According to the National Reading Panel, it is “the direct teaching of letter-sound relationships in a clearly defined sequence.” We know that phonics instruction produces significant benefits for children from kindergarten through 6thgrade and for children having difficulty learning to read. We also know that it is critical to teach each phonetic pattern and to not ask students to figure these out for themselves.

Vocabulary

Vocabulary instruction is intimately tied to comprehension. Direct and indirect instruction in learning new words is especially important for struggling readers because they typically read less challenging books with less challenging vocabulary.

Reading Fluency

Fluency is a reader’s ability to read accurately, with sufficient speed and appropriate expression also referred to as prosody. Automaticity is defined as “fast, accurate, and effortless word identification at the single word level.” Fluency involves not only automatic word identification but also the application of features such as meaningful phrasing, rhythm and intonation. Many struggling students do learn to read words automatically, but they often do not learn to read with prosody, which greatly affects their ability to understand what they are reading.

Silent reading is a way of practicing reading, but it has not been shown to increase fluency. Guided reading, more effective in improving fluency, means that students are reading aloud under the guidance of a teacher. The teacher may discuss words that may cause difficulty for students, relating them to patterns and rules that students have learned. The teacher can also model prosody, reading aloud with proper expression and intonation, and then have students echo her example.

Decodable text is a wonderful way to aid struggling readers in fluency improvement. This type of text uses words and patterns that students have already been taught so that decoding the words is not an issue and the students can concentrate on reading in meaningful phrases with proper expression. After they have mastered fluency with this type of text, they will be more ready to read text that is less decodable.

Reading Comprehension

Comprehension is what most people think reading is. This is because comprehension is the main reason that we read. It is the aspect of reading that all other components work to create. Reading comprehension is more than just understanding words in isolation. It is putting them together and using prior knowledge to develop meaning. Like vocabulary, comprehension skills develop over time through explicit instruction and practice.

If teachers wait until students can independently read the material they are using for comprehension instruction, they are missing many opportunities to teach critical strategies. According to a NICHD report from 2004, “The materials used to build children’s comprehension should be geared to their oral language comprehension level. Comprehension strategies and new vocabulary should be taught using orally presented stories and text that are more sophisticated than the early text that children read. As students become fluent readers, they can then apply these comprehension strategies to their own reading.” Teachers can use interactive read-alouds for this purpose.

The major difference between struggling readers and their more fluent peers is that fluent readers can effectively decode and comprehend text simultaneously. They can focus on the main ideas and important information while reading. They can self-monitor while reading so that they know when lack of understanding occurs. They can organize information learned from reading in meaningful ways. Struggling readers often have diminished ability in these skills because so much of their cognitive energy is spent on decoding and identifying words. In terms of comprehending, struggling readers often:
  • Have difficulty recalling main events in a text.
  • Focus so much on the details of the text that the main idea is lost.
  • ICannot “picture” what is going on in a written passage.
  • ​Have difficulty providing evidence from the text to support their answers.
  • ​Struggle to extract meaning from informational text.
  • ​Have difficulty monitoring their own understanding, so they are unsure of what they have learned from a text.
  • ​Are often unaware of basic strategies that good readers use, such as rereading passages they don’t understand.
So, comprehension instruction for struggling readers should be more explicit and more sequential, and it should provide many more opportunities for guided practice.

Lynn Givens

Mrs. Givens has been a teacher of struggling readers and a teacher educator for over 35 years. She served as Director of Intervention at the Florida Center for Reading Research where she was involved in providing intervention training and professional development for teachers throughout Florida. Until recently, Mrs. Givens has been teaching undergraduate reading courses at Florida State University’s School of Teacher Education and teaching and facilitating a practicum for teachers of struggling readers. As a staff member at Beacon Educator for the past 10 years, she has acted as instructor/facilitator for online teacher endorsement courses in reading. Trained in the Orton-Gillingham approach, she spent eight years at the Schenck School in Atlanta, which provided her with a firm foundation in teaching students with dyslexia and other struggling readers. Her goal has always been to provide high-quality, explicit instruction to close the gaps for students who are having reading difficulties and to instruct teachers on how to do this as well.

To assist in this effort, Mrs. Givens has published several unique instructional materials, the Connect to Comprehension reading program and Phonics Games for Fluency, which are used to assist struggling readers and their teachers throughout the US. In collaboration with the Orton-Gillingham Online Academy, she has also developed an in-depth course on the foundations of reading instruction with a particular emphasis on helping students learn and practice upper-level comprehension skills.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Phonological Friday: The Schwa

by Dr. Garforth | May 8, 2020 | Phonological Fridays

What is the Schwa?

According to Gina Cooke (2008a), the schwa is:

“the Language Arts teacher’s nemesis: the unstressed, toneless, neutral vowel sound that is the most common sound in all of English.”

Technically speaking, the schwa is an unstressed vowel sound that is found in a polysyllabic (multisyllabic) word.* It is often represented by ə. The schwa sound is similar to a short i or a short u sound but it is not the same. The schwa is an unstressed alternative for pretty much any vowel sound.

The term schwa is a German word that can be traced back to the Hebrew word “shva”.

The label schwa was first used to describe this unstressed vowel sound in the English language during the late 19th century.

Before this, the schwa sound had been described as an unstressed, toneless, neutral, weak, obscure, null, ill-defined, intermediate vowel or a natural vowel.

According to the International Phonetical Alphabet, the shwa is considered a vowel phone and not an individual phoneme. Schwa is considered a vowel phone because it does not provide a distinction between words in the English language.

The schwa is the largest source of problems in reading and spelling for students.

You may be wondering why Schwa is such a nightmare?
  • The schwa can be represented by all of the vowel letters: a, e, I, o, u, & y
  • In oral language, the syllable containing a schwa sound may be omitted. This is referred to as a schwa syncope or a schwa deletion. (different -> dif-rent; Frederick -> Fred-rick; caramel ->car-mel)
  • In oral language, additional schwa syllables may be inserted into a word.
  • In some dialects, a schwa is inserted into a word to break up a consonant cluster that is difficult to pronounce.
  • A schwa is sometimes inserted for emphasis. (realtor -> real- ə-tor; athlete -> ath- ə-lete; nuclear -> nuc- ə-lear)
  • A schwa can be inserted to words for a dramatic effect. (please -> pə-lease)
Schwa is the most common sound in the English language and a student’s knowledge of it should not be left up to chance. The English language is considered to be a stressed-timed language meaning that when you pronounce polysyllabic words in English, each syllable does have the same emphasis when it is spoken.
A Guide to Teaching Schwa:

The most important thing to know about schwa is that it is always unstressed. Start building students’ awareness of the stress patterns in words. This can be done in a multisensory manner using mirrors so the students can see how their mouth moves while they say the words.

Begin by teaching words that begin with an unstressed vowel in the initial position (away, unopen).

When teaching etymology and morphology, remind students that schwa sounds are often found in words with a Latin origin.

When teaching students about etymological word families, students can learn that related words have similar spellings. This understanding can help them become better at spelling the schwa vowel sound found in the word in question.

When teaching morphemes, remind students that many prefixes and suffixes contain a schwa.

When reading words or dictating words for spelling do not over-enunciate a word by saying a schwa as a pure vowel sound.
* Remember the Greek prefix poly means more than one

Reference:

Cooke, G. (2008a, Summer). Phono-logic: A treatise on the schwa, part 1. Toward a Common Goal, 7-8.

Cooke, G. (2008b, Fall). Phono-logic: A treatise on the schwa, part 2. Toward a Common Goal, 7-8.

Cooke, G. (2008c, Winter). Phono-logic: A treatise on the schwa, part 3. Toward a Common Goal, 7-8.

Henry, M. (2010). Unlocking Literacy: Effective decoding & spelling instruction (2nded.). Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co.

Venezky, R. L. (1999). The American way of spelling: The structure and origins of American English orthography. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

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If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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What is Missing From Our Teacher Education Programs?

by Dr. Garforth | May 22, 2020 | Instructional Strategies
This is an exciting post for me to write because it is the Garforth Education Blog’s 100th post!

I know you are probably expecting a #phonologicalfriday post, but this week it is a special occasion so I have decided to write something a little different. I have decided to write a post I have been thinking about for a while.

Many of today’s teacher education programs are not producing new teachers that feel confident walking into a classroom ready to teach. I remember my peers in the teacher education program feeling this way, I have talked to several teachers who have felt this way and there are Facebook Groups for teachers who feel there was something missing from their teacher education program.

I have been reading books, articles, blog posts about education for a long time and there is one thing that has been brought up time and time again, the fact that Teacher Education Programs are not providing prospective teachers with current information about best practices in teaching.

“The fault doesn’t originate with the teacher; they, themselves, have been robbed in their teacher preparation programs where schools of education gladly took their tuition while largely failing to actually equip teachers” – Janet Jones

There are leading researchers that have pointed to Teacher Education Programs not adequately preparing teachers to teach basic skills such as reading and math. For example, Dr. Linda Siegel states:

“Many teachers are not properly instructed in teaching reading and mathematic skills. Often they are not taught the importance of phonics and phonological awareness. “

For a while, I have been thinking about how I would do things differently if Garforth Education were to develop a Teacher Education Program.

We owe so much to the people who are prepared to dedicate their lives to educating our children, they have some of the most important jobs in the world and it takes special individuals to do this.

I think Teacher Education Programs must do everything they can to make sure these future teachers go into their profession confident in the skills they will need to help our future have the skills they need to succeed.

In this post I will discuss the 7 Core Subjects I would include in a Teacher Education Program. These elements would not be enough for a whole teacher education program, but I feel it would better prepare preservice teachers for what they will see in their classroom.

Developmental Stages

This would not be a brief overview of the developmental stages historically taught based on 20th-century psychology; it would be based on current theories around the stages of development based on neuropsychology.

It would include the social and emotional developmental stages so teachers can recognize where their students are currently at and where they should be. This would help teachers have a better understanding of how they can help students who are weak in an area develop these critical skills that will help them through life.

It would include the developmental stages of reading development. This would allow teachers to have a better understanding of what skills their students need to work on. It would provide them with ways they can check for the different core skills related to reading development. It would help the teacher realize that if the student doesn’t have the prerequisite skills for what they are working on, they would have to go back to establish these skills before working on the new skill.

It would include the developmental stages related to math development. This would help teachers have a better understanding of their own mathematical understanding. It would provide them with ways to measure what skills their students currently have and what areas they need to address in order for the student to reach the grade-level expectations.

Science of Reading

I think Emily Hanford said it best when she said

“The fact that a disproven theory about how reading works is still driving the way many children are taught to read is part of the problem.”

Preservice teachers would get explicit training in the 5 core components of Reading Science. They would learn how to explicitly teach Phonological Awareness, Phonics, Vocabulary, Reading Comprehension, and Reading Fluency.

They would come out of their training with the knowledge of how to teach their students how to read from the beginning, instead of just being taught to do with students who already know how to read.

Some may argue that this is only needed for primary teachers, but I feel every teacher needs to understand how to teach reading because, in their career, there will be students who struggle with reading whether they are teaching kindergarten or grade 12.

Science of Mathematics

Preservice teachers will be taught about the components to Mathematic development so they can understand how students learn about the concepts related to numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, measurement, geometry, and the list goes on.

These teachers would understand how to teach these concepts explicitly to their students and not just how to work on these skills once they have been developed.

Executive Functioning

Preservice teachers would learn about what Executive Functions are, how and when they develop, as well as how they can support their development in their classrooms.

Executive Functions typically don’t begin developing until the age of 5 and they continue to develop into early adulthood.

If teachers knew and understood how these skills develop, they could both model it in their classroom and have supports in place to facilitate their students development in these areas.

Exceptional Students

There are several common conditions that teachers should be knowledgeable about because each year they will have students that are affected by them. These include Specific Learning Disorders, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression.

Preservice teachers must be aware of the warning signs of all these conditions because many do not appear until children are school age. They also need to be aware of how these conditions can affect a student’s behaviour.

As students get older they can be very creative in hiding their areas of weakness and teachers can mislabel these students as having behaviour issues.

 For all of these issues, early identification and interventions will lead to the most effective outcomes for the students.

Understanding these issues and already knowing how to support these conditions in their classroom will give a head start when they have their own classroom.

Individualized Education Plans

Individualized Education Plans or IEPs are documents that are created for students with exceptionalities that need help accessing the classroom curriculum. Many teachers, parents, and administrators dread IEP meetings every year.

Preservice teachers must first understand the IEP process and terms associated with the process. I have worked with several seasoned teachers who still confuse some of the terminologies associated with IEPs.

Preservice teachers must then be taught how to get information on an individual student’s needs from psychoeducational assessments and other formal reports so they can truly understand what the students require to have access to the curriculum.

Preservice teachers must understand that a well written IEP actually makes their job easier and not harder. It will tell them how they can make their lessons accessible to this student and give them the goals they need to make sure this student is able to develop in areas they are weak.

These preservice teachers need experience creating at a least few IEP in their training. They then must use those IEP to create classroom lesson plans that incorporate information from the IEP.

Final Thoughts…

If all new teachers went into their first classroom with this knowledge, I feel they would be better prepared to face the job ahead of them. They will be able to walk in on the first day of school knowing where their students should be developmentally, how science says to teach reading and mathematics, how to support their students’ executive functioning, what different exceptionalities they will come across in their classrooms and how to plan for all their future students.

These teachers would still have a lot of learning to do on the job and through continued education as our knowledge of development and best practices in teaching grows. I hope a program that contains the elements I suggested would reduce the overall stress new teachers feel and help reduce the high burn out rate among teachers in the first five years.

#PhonologicalFriday: Phonosemantics

by Dr. Garforth | Jun 26, 2020 | Phonological Fridays
Happy #phonologicalfriday everyone!

I hope you are doing well.

If you are a regular reader of this blog, you know that I like to find logic in the English language. I think it is important that educators can tell students why things are spelled a certain way.

A few weeks ago I found a book that I just had to get and it arrived this week. It is by Colin Williams called SL- is for Sleaze but SN- is for
Sneeze! The Meaning Behind English Consonant Clusters. Within the first few pages of this book, I was introduced to the term phonosemantics. As I read further into the book I thought it would be a great thing to post about, because if it is a new term for me, then there are probably others who don’t know about it either.
In this post, I will tell you about what I have learned so far! Please leave a comment if you know of any other resources I should look into or have things you think should be added to the post!

Phonesematics is a small but growing field of linguistics. It is the idea that sounds have inherent meaning. It is also referred to as phonesthesia or sound symbolism.

Phonesthemes refers to the meaning related to a cluster of sounds. A sound cluster may have more than one phonesthemes.

Before going any further, it is important to note that phonosemantics is not the same thing as morphology. Phonesthemes are general trends found within the language and not as consistent as morphemes. Words with prefixes, roots, and suffixes already have part of their meaning explained and the relationship between then is more obvious.

Once you remove these words and regroup the remaining words together that have the same clusters of sounds, there will be several words that have at least something that ties them together. Sometimes this commonality isn’t very apparent at first, but all it takes is someone pointing it out to you and then it becomes more apparent.

At the very least, these consonant clusters can provide us a hint into the word’s etymology or where this word came from.
I will share a couple of examples that Williams (2018) goes through in his book.

The phonestheme st can be found in hundreds of thousands of English words. While the words containing this cluster can trace their origins to a variety of different sources, the vast majority of them can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European origins.

This cluster includes words such as step, stay, stable, sting, steadfast, establishment, and obstacle. Words containing this cluster tend to be rigid and unbending.

The consonant cluster br is another one with a rich European history and appears to have three phonesthemes associated with it. Many words containing this cluster can be sorted into traditional ideas of masculine and feminine.

The masculine words such as brag, bravery, and brawn have underpinnings of aggressiveness and territorialism. While feminine words like bride, breed, and bread are associated with traditional feminine things around homemaking and feeding. The final phonestheme of this blend relates to bristly things.

The vast majority of words containing the consonant cluster sn have to do with the nose. Think of the following words: sniffle, snore, snout, sneeze, and even Snuffleupagus. We can see this pattern in Old English, Norse, Proto-Germanic, Norwegian, Baltic Languages.

Reference:

Williams, C. (2018) Sl- is for sleaze but sn- is for sneeze: The meanings behind English consonant clusters. ISBN-13:978-1985830899
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Phonics Instruction: What is it and why is important?

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 7, 2020 | Reading Science

What is Phonics Instruction?

Simply put, phonics instruction is teaching someone the relationship between the speech sounds (phonemes) in our spoken language and how they relate to the letter or letters (graphemes) of the alphabet. Technically speaking, this is considered to be graphophonemic awareness.

For example, in a phonics lesson, you may see a teacher showing the students the letter ‘a’ and telling the students “’a’ says /a/ for apple.” They are trying to show the relationship between the letter ‘a’ and the short vowel sound it makes. They will then likely give other examples of words that have this short vowel sound in it and ask the students if they can think up of any other words containing the sound like a cat, fan, has, nap…

The goal of phonics instruction is to give people the skills they need in order to sound out words for reading (decoding) and spelling (encoding).

Why is Phonics Instruction Important?

Phonics instruction is an essential part of reading instruction because it is when beginning readers learn the relationship between the sounds of the spoken language with the letters they relate to in written language.
Phonics gives readers the tools they need to sound out a word they do not know when they are reading. This is especially important when the reader starts reading more difficult texts without pictures because they will begin to come across words they are not familiar with on a regular basis.

Phonics is actually considered to be one of the foundational pillars in the Science of Reading. This means that when we consider all the research done on reading instruction and how the brain learns how to read, research tells us that in order for an individual to become a confident and skilled reader, they have to have a firm knowledge of the relationship between the individual speech sounds within the English language and how they are represented by letters.

The 5 Things you need to know about Phonics!

  • All phonics programs are not created equally.
  • The problem with the English language is that our alphabet has 26 letters, our spoken language has about 44 different speech sounds and these speech sounds can be represented by more than 200 different ways.
  • Phonics instruction should not just go through the letters in alphabetical order, teaching the most common speech sound for each letter. Phonics programs that start with the letter A and end with the letter Z are typically referred to as analytic phonics programs. These programs typically only teach a surface level of the letter/sound relationships in the English language. When you teach phonics this way, you have to teach several letters before the beginning reader can sound out a number of words that they use in their everyday language.
  • ​The gold star for phonics programs involve systematic, explicit instruction of the letter/sound relationships in the English language. These programs start by teaching the most common letter-sound relationships that will allow the beginning reader to read several words found in their vocabulary that they will likely come across in their reading. These programs focus on more than just the sounds related to single letters, they also teach about blends and digraphs.
  • ​When you are teaching students phonics you MUST work on spelling and reading at the same time. Reading and spelling are related skills. They support each other and help cement the relationship between the letters and their speech sounds. This allows the individual to practice blending the sounds together when they are reading a word and separating the sounds apart when they are trying to spell words.
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The Simple View of Reading

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 8, 2020 | Reading Science
Even though reading is a very complex process where we have to retrain our brain to use components that were originally designed for something else, it can be boiled down to three elements. These elements are decoding, language comprehension, and reading comprehension.

In 1970‘s and 1980’s the Whole Language approach to reading instruction was used widely across the world. In Whole Language reading instruction, the focus of teaching students how to read by immersing them in a literacy-rich environment and not spending a significant amount of time on phonics instruction. The thought was, if you spent time creating the love of reading among students, reading would come naturally to them. Unfortunately, this instructional method does not work for all students and there were many students who were not able to read.

In 1986, Phillip Gough and William Tumner wrote an article where the proposed the Simple View of Reading. In this article, they wanted to show the importance of teaching children how to decode or sound out the words they did not know.

The Simple View of Reading Formula

So, they came up with a mathematical formula to show for an individual to understand what they have read (reading comprehension {RC}) they need to be able to recognize the word (decoding {D}) AND understand what the words meant (language comprehension {LC}).

The range of the scores each of these terms can only between the values of 0 (cannot do the skill at all) and 1 (has mastered the skill). Realistically there is a range of abilities when it comes to decoding, language comprehension, and reading comprehension so these values are going to be decimals.

Mathematically the formula looks like this:

D * LC = RC
When you look at this equation, you will notice that the operation is multiplication and not addition. This is because even though decoding and language comprehension are very different skills, they related to each other when it comes to an individual’s reading comprehension. If you were to simply added the values related to decoding and language comprehension together, the answer would not show how they are related to each other.

So what does this really mean?

Using the Simple View of Reading’s formula, generally speaking, you will come up with four different types of students.
An individual who is a poor decoder will struggle with being able to figure out what word the letters make. Poor decoding is problematic because if you don’t know what the word says, there is no way that you can access the meaning.

If someone is a poor decoder than as a teacher you need to figure out why this is the case. First, you should assess their phonological awareness. This is the individual’s awareness of the sounds within a language and their ability to manipulate them. You can do this with an informal screening measure such as the free Phonological Awareness Screening Tool (The PAST Test), by Dr. David Kilpatrick. If they struggle with any of the phonological awareness skills, then you should make sure at least part of the intervention focuses on these skills.

Then you should look into their phonics knowledge. A poor decoder may struggle with knowing the relationship between the letters of the alphabet and the sounds that they make. Individuals with weaknesses in this area need support learning the relationships between the sounds in the English language and the letters that represent them in the written language. This instruction needs to be systematic (teaching the letters in a logical sequence based on a frequency, not just alphabetical order) AND explicit because understanding these letter/sound relationships is a basic component of reading.

Poor decoding skills is a hallmark trait of individuals with dyslexia, which is a type of learning disability that affects an individual’s ability to read.
An individual who struggles with language comprehension will not have a problem with reading the words in the story. If you ask them to read a story they will be able to read the story without difficulty, but if you ask them about what they read, they would have not be able to tell you what the story was about.

There are several reasons this may happen and in order to help the student, you must figure out why. It could be their vocabulary, their knowledge about the subject that they read, their ability to understand complex sentences, not knowing where to look for meaning along with other challenges. They could struggle in one of these areas or several of these areas.
An individual who struggles with both decoding the text and language comprehension will definitely struggle with reading comprehension. If they can’t read the words, or understand what they mean, how can they understand what they have read?

These individuals need support in all areas related to literacy and the effects of their problems will only get bigger over time if they don’t get help.
These individuals have no problem with reading the words on the page or understanding what they mean. This is the ultimate goal of reading instruction.

Reference:

Baker, S.K., Fien, F., Nelson, N. J., Petscher, Y., Sayko, S., & Turtura, J. (2017). Learning to read: “The simple view of reading”. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Improving Literacy. Retrieved from http://improvingliteracy.org

Gough, P. B. & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education. 7 (1): 6. doi:10.1177/074193258600700104.
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#Phonologicalfriday: Scarborough’s Reading Rope

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 10, 2020 | Phonological Fridays
Happy #phonologicalfriday everyone!

This week we are going to be focusing on more than just phonology, we will be discussing many of the complex skills related to skilled reading development.

In 2001, Dr. Hollis Scarborough introduced Scarborough’s Reading Rope as a way to represent how related complex skills need to work together so an individual can become a skilled reader.

The Reading Rope builds on the concepts that Gough and Tumner (1986) had in their Simple View of Reading formula. This formula states:

Decoding x Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension

And it shows us that both of these components are essential for a reader to understand what they are reading.

Scarborough's Reading Rope

In the Reading Rope, you can see that the two components from the Simple View of Reading, decoding and language comprehension, are part of the Reading Rope. In the Reading Rope, there are two main skills, Word Recognition and Language Comprehension. Each of these skills is comprised by subskills within the strands of the rope.

Word Recognition

In the Simple View of Reading, Gough & Tumner considered this to just be Decoding, but Scarborough shows that decoding alone is not enough to recognize words in text. She considers word recognition to have 3 essential components to it: phonological awareness, decoding, and sight recognition.

Phonological Awareness includes several skills related to an individual’s understanding of how a spoken language works and the different ways a word can be broken down. This includes the ability to break words into their smaller components like syllables and phonemes and their ability to notice similarities in the sounds in words such as rhymes and alliteration.

Decoding requires the individual to know that a written letter corresponds with a speech sound and that these speech sounds are combined together to make a word. In order for an individual to be able to decode, they must learn the relationship between the letters and the sounds they make (graphophonemic awareness). The best way for an individual to learn about these relationships is through phonics instruction.

Sight Recognition is the ability for an individual to look at any word they come across and automatically know what it says. This means that the individual has been exposed to this word enough times that this word has been stored in their long term memory so that they can retrieve it automatically whenever they come across it. They no longer have to decode this word in order to know what it says.
Skilled reading requires that the processes involved in word recognition become so well practiced that they can proceed extremely quickly and almost effortlessly, freeing up the reader’s cognitive resources for comprehension processes.
Hollis Scarborough (2001).

These three skills are braided together to form Word Recognition and they are all still seen as individual threads of the Reading Rope. Beginning readers rely more heavily on the phonological awareness and the decoding strands of the rope. As they become more experienced readers, the number of words they recognize by sight will increase, and reading words and connected text will become more fluent and automatic. However, these skills are still needed because when individuals continue to read to learn, they will come across new words they have not read before.

Together, these three skills allow an individual to identify what has been written on the page, but it does not help them understand what these words mean or how they are related to each other.

Language Comprehension

Language Comprehension contains more strands than Word Recognition because there are more elements that need to be considered for an individual to understand the words they are trying to communicate. These components are Background Knowledge, Vocabulary, Language Structures, Verbal Reasoning, and Literacy Knowledge.

Background Knowledge means that an individual has at least a basic understanding of what is being discussed. It allows the individual to build a foundation on a topic so that as they read, they can connect the new information with what they already know. When the reader comes across a word that has several meanings, it allows the reader to select the appropriate meaning.

For example, consider the following sentence:

The horse’s frog was black and smelly.

If the reader did not know much about horses, they may assume the horse had a pet frog that was smelling and looking black.
However, if the person knew about horses, they would know that part of the horse’s hoof is called a frog. They may even know that when a horse’s frog is smelling and looking black, the horse’s hoof likely needs to be treated for a thrush infection.
An individual needs to have the vocabulary to understand what they are reading. This means they must know what a significant percentage of the words in the text means. If a reader is reading a passage and does not understand what the words they are reading mean, they will not understand what the text is trying to say.

Language Structures

An individual needs to understand the language structure related to what they are reading for them to take the intended meaning away. This means they must understand the language’s syntax and semantics. Syntax refers to the grammatical rules and conventions we follow when creating sentences. Semantics refers to how the symbols (punctuation) and chosen words relate to each other and whether they can make a meaningful sentence.

For example, if you think of the two sentences

A panda eats, shoots and leaves.

A panda eats shoots and leaves.

These two sentences have very different meanings. The first sentence has the panda eating something, then they shoot (presumably a gun) and then they leave the place they were eating.
The second sentence discusses the type of food the panda eats (bamboo shoots and leaves).
Understanding a language’s structures allows the reader to make sure they are understanding the text the way the author intends it to be read.

Verbal Reasoning

Verbal reasoning allows the reader to take a deeper look into what the words on the page are intending to say. It allows them to infer meaning and not take similes and metaphors literally. This allows the author to use figures of speech to enhance their writing and the reader to interpret what the author meant to convey.

Literary Knowledge

Literary knowledge provides the reader with the information they need to know to enjoy reading. For example, they need to know how to hold a book, the way to read the words on a page from left to right and which way to turn the pages (print concepts). They also need to understand the different genres of text so they know what they can expect from what they read and how to interpret it. They should know that in fiction they should let their mind explore the written word and allow themselves to interpret the information based on their own experiences. However, if they are reading a non-fiction book, they should know that it is based on more factual information.

Conclusion

Scarborough’s Reading Rope provides a good visual representation of the various different components of reading. When you are working with an individual who struggles with some aspect of reading, you should consider looking into all of these factors to help guide your intervention efforts.

Reference

S\Gough, P. B. & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education. 7 (1): 6. doi:10.1177/074193258600700104.

 
Moats, L. C. (2020). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers (3rd Ed). Paul
H. Brookes Publishing House.

Scarborough, H. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory and practice. In S. Newman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research. pp. 97-110. New York, Guilford Press.
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Vocabulary Development

by Dr. Garforth | Sep 8, 2020 | Skill Development
I find it fascinating how the human mind works and is able to learn new things and allows us to learn about countless topics. One of the key factors that allow us to do this is that our vocabulary. Vocabulary plays a huge role in our ability to understand concepts, conversations, and what we read.

Luckily, our brains are designed to learn new words at an amazing rate and we do not need to be explicitly or directly taught each new word we add to our vocabulary.

Young children learn new words naturally through exposure as they hear everyday conversations and are read to. As they get older those around them can help them grow an increasingly colorful and sophisticated vocabulary. As adults, we can do this by making a conscious choice to use more advanced words as we are speaking to them. You would be amazed at the language they can pick up through mere exposure.

For example, in my backyard, we have hydrangea bushes and that is what we call them. My three year old will call them by their proper name instead of just calling them flowers. One day she was leading her Granddad around the backyard and told him how “These hydrangeas are my favourite!” I can assure you, we have never taken her up to them and explained to her that they were hydrangea bushes, but on the other hand, we have never called them flower bushes either. She was able to pick up the proper name by just hearing us talk about them.

As children get older they move from learning the majority of their vocabulary words through everyday spoken language to learning new words through reading a wide range of texts. So as we get older, our vocabulary growth depends on how much and the quality of information that we read. This can be very problematic for an individual who struggles with reading or is a reluctant reader because, with less text exposure, they have access to fewer words. Learning new vocabulary becomes effortful and more difficult to pick up.

Vocabulary words fall into three categories or tiers, and once you are more familiar with these categories, it will be easier to understand why we need to read to gain access to these more complex words.

Tier 1 Words

I call these Everyday Words because they are common words that we use in our everyday words that an individual will pick up through everyday conversations. Learning their meaning is almost effortless as we learn their meaning through association. Some examples include: go, and, girl, chair, floor.

Tier 2 Words

These words are words you would likely come across in general written language and more serious spoken conversation. These are the words that provide general information around procedures and give us more detailed information about topics. They are also the words that you will see students using the synonym option on their computer to make their writing sound more ‘grown-up’. I like to call these words Thesaurus Words for that reason. Some examples would be: terrified, desire, compare, contrast

Tier 3 Words

Tier 3 words are what I call Glossary words. They are the ones that you find in the glossaries of textbooks. These words are subject-specific and not needed for everyday conversation but essential if you are speaking about the topic they relate to. Some examples of these words are: atom, sedimentary, scapula, onomatopoeia

Parents and classroom teachers should focus on building Tier 2 or Thesaurus Words when they are trying to work on building vocabularies. These are the words that will make the biggest impact on an individual’s vocabulary. As we are introducing these words, it is important to do more than just teaching the definition. This will only give the individual a limited understanding of the word. An individual needs to read or hear the word in a couple of different contexts before they really get to know a word and be able to use it properly.
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Morphological Awareness

by Dr. Garforth | May 4, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays, Reading Science

What is Morphological Awareness?

Morphological awareness is an understanding of the morphemic patterns in words and knowledge of what the morpheme means. The English language is full of polysyllabic words that contain prefixes and suffixes to extend and expand the meaning of the base element or root. These small parts of words (morphemes) and learning about a word’s etymology (where the word came from) provide the missing information needed to discover the complexities of the English language.

Unfortunately, there has been a shift away from explicitly teaching morphemes in schools over the past few decades. When schools include morphology instruction during their Language Arts programs, students gain strategies for decoding new words while reading, for different spelling patterns that exist in English words and enhancing their vocabulary knowledge.

Before going to details about the importance of morphological awareness let’s go over some terminology first.

Affix – a prefix, suffix or infix that can attach to stems or roots to make a new word

Allomorph – any variant form of a morpheme; the spelling of a morpheme can change depending on what precedes or follows it, for example:

s -> hats; es -> foxes; en -> oxen

Etymology – the historical origins of a word; many English words can be traced back to Greek, Latin, French, English and Germanic roots

Grapheme – the smallest unit of a writing system; in English, these are the letters of the alphabet

Infix – are put in the middle of the word

Morpheme –the smallest unit of meaning in a word; a free morpheme can stand alone or be combined with another to form a new word (ex. happy); a bound morpheme must be attached to another morpheme to make a word (ex. un)

Phoneme – the smallest unit of sound in spoken language

Prefix – a morpheme at the beginning of a word or root and affect the meaning of the word

Root – a morpheme which is the basis of a word and rarely stands alone

Suffix – a morpheme added to the end of a word or root; it can change the word to a different form (noun, verb, adjective or adverb)

Why should Morphology be taught in schools?

There is no argument that every student should have a solid foundation in synthetic phonics in order to become competent readers and spellers. However, teachers should not stop their reading and spelling instruction there, they should include explicit morphological awareness instruction. Teaching students about morphemes provides them with strategies they can use to read and spell unfamiliar words as well as giving them hints to what the word might mean (e.g. Henry,1993).

When students are taught approximately 130 prefixes, roots, and suffixes, they will have the tools for reading and spelling many more words than they could if they were just sounding them out using their basic phonics. The knowledge of these morphemes will provide access to hundreds of thousands of words (Henry, 2019).

How do you teach Morphology?

Teaching morphology is as simple as regularly teaching students new prefixes, affixes, roots and suffixes as they fit with the curriculum.
Children can be taught about morphemes and the etymology of words at the same time as they are learning phonics in kindergarten and grade 1 (Devonshire, Morris, & Fluck, 2013). Young children can understand that words are built differently depending on where that language came from. If teachers discuss these different spellings with their students, the students have a better chance of understanding why sounds are spelt differently.

When educators are first introducing morphemes to students in the primary grades, it is best to start with adding suffixes to words. In the beginning, start with words that will not require a change in spelling when the suffix is added (ex: hope + less = hopeless; sad + ly = sadly).
As the students get more comfortable with this process, they can start to learn the rules associated with adding different suffixes to words. For example, the doubling rule when adding a suffix to a single syllable word with a short vowel sound (can + ing = canning; fan + ed = fanned).

The middle and upper elementary grades are when the shift from teaching children how to read to expecting children to read to learn new information occurs. During these grades, it is important to ensure to focus on morphological awareness because it contributes to students decoding and spelling ability. Teachers can use graphic organizers with their students to form word webs for different morphemes.
They can also create word matrices and word sums to help show students how morphemes combine to create words in the English language.
Morphology instruction does not just have to happen during language arts lessons, the majority of content specific words found in Social Studies, Science and Mathematics are made up of morphemes with Latin and Greek origins. This allows teachers to include instruction about the morphemes related to the content area during lessons focused on vocabulary.
The following websites can provide valuable information about the morphology and etymology of different words in the English language:
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Reference:

Devonshire, V., Morris, P., & Fluck, M. (2013). Spelling and reading development: The effect of teaching children multiple levels of representation in their orthography. Learning and Instruction, 25, 85-94.

Henry, M. K. (1993). Morphological structure: Latin and Greek roots and affixes as upper grade code strategies. Reading and Writing, 5(2), 227-241.

Henry, M. K. (2019). Morphemes matter: A framework for instruction. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, Spring 2019, 23 – 26.

Moats, L. C. (2004). Science, language, and imagination in the professional development of reading teachers. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.) The voice of evidence in reading research(269-288). Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

* The Word Matrix was made on Neil Ramsden’s Mini Matrix-Maker Edit Page
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Morpheme Monday: July 15, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 15, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
This week you will learn about a prefix that is good to teach students once they already know several morphemes, a root that is best left for experienced students and a suffix that is one of the first morphemes you should teach.

Let’s stop to review a few of the key terms that are used in this post.

Morpheme – the smallest unit of meaning in a language

Prefix – a morpheme placed at the beginning of a root word; it affects the meaning of the root or base word

Root – a morpheme that is the basis of the word’s meaning and rarely can be used by itself

Free Base – a word or root that does not require another morpheme to be attached to it

Bound Base – a root that requires the addition of another morpheme to be considered a word; most roots are considered to be bound bases/roots

Suffix – a morpheme placed at the end of a word or root; it has the potential to change the word’s form (ie. noun-forming, verb-forming, adjective-forming or adverb-forming)

If you would like a more detailed description of these terms and more please refer to the Morphological Awareness post.

Prefix: re-

Origin: Latin

Definition: again, back, backward

Examples: recognize, reaction, retell, regress, return, remit
<re> + <mind> = remind
<re> + <tort> = retort
<re> + <bound> = rebound
<re> + <port> + <er> = reporter
<re> + <tract> + <able> = retractable
<re> + <play> = replay
  • When <re> is combined with a “free base” or a word that can stand alone, it typically means again
  • When <re> is combined with a “bound base” or a root that cannot stand alone, it typically means back
  • The prefix <re> is typically pronounced with a long vowel e sound at the end but in sometimes the vowel sound is short sound 
  • ​This prefix should be taught once individuals have a basic understanding about suffixes and are beginning to learn about prefixes.

Root: dorm

Origin: Latin

Definition: sleep

Examples: dorm, dormitory, dormancy, dormer-window, dormition, dormeuse
<dorm> + <er> + <s> = dormers
<dorm> + <ant> = dormant
<dorm> + <in> = dormin
<dorm> + <i> + <tive> = dormitive
  • This root has a consistant pronunciation
  • This is traditionally considered to be a “bound root” but the word dormitory is often shortened to dorm
  • The root <dorm> is a more advanced root and should not be taught until the student has a solid foundation in the more frequent prefixes, bases and suffixes in the English language

Suffix: -ed

Origin: Old English

Definition: action, past tense

Examples: milked, nailed, hoped, roamed, locked, shifted
<smile> + <ed> = smiled
<study> + <ed> = studied
<follow> + <ed> = followed
<scold> + <ed> = scolded
<grant> + <ed> = granted
<twist> + <ed> = twisted
<lock> + <ed> = locked
<jump> + <ed> = jumped
<hope> + <ed> = hoped
  • This is a common suffix and it should be one of the first morphemes taught to students
  • This suffix has three possible pronunciations /t/, /d/, and /ed/. The pronunciation will depend on the root word it is attached to.
  • Appropriate spelling rules associated with adding a suffix should be taught at the same time as this suffix
  • The 1 -1 – 1 Spelling Rule: When adding a suffix starting with a vowel onto a single syllable word that has one vowel making a short vowel sound and one consonant, double the final consonant before adding the suffix. ex: <slip> + <ed> = slipped, <stop> + <ed> = stopped; <hop> + <ed> = hopped
  • Drop the Silent e Rule: When the last syllable in a word has a silent e at the end (ex: smile, decide, slope) drop the ‘e’ before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. ex: <smile> + <ed> = smiled; <decide> + <ed> = decided; <slope> + <ed> = sloped
  • Change the y to i Rule: When the word ends in the letter y, you must look to see what the letter before it is. If it is a vowel (ex: enjoy, stay), keep the y. If it is a consonant (ex: candy, carry), change the y to i and add <ed>. ex: <enjoy> + <ed> = enjoyed; <stay> + <ed> = stayed; <candy> + <ed> = candied; <carry> + <ed> = carried
  • ​Doubling Final Consonant of Two Syllable Words: In words where the final sylable is stressed (ex: commit, occur, refer), double the final consonant before adding the suffix <ing>. ex: <commit> + <ed> = committed; <occur> + <ed> = occurred; <refer> + <ed> = referred
  • ​Doubling the Final l: If the last sylable in a word contains a single letter l (ex: propel, cancel, fufil), then double the l before adding the suffix <ing>. ex: <propel> + <ed> = propelled; <cancel> + <ed> = cancelled; <fulfil> + <ed> = fulfilled
  • ​Remember to tell your students that almost all of these rules for adding suffixes have exceptions but it is fairly safe to follow them most of the time.
  • Remind students that not all words that are past tense end in the suffix <ed>. By the time most children who have English as their first language start school they have already internalized these words, but those who have English as an additional language may have to be taught these words. ex: buy -> bought; pay -> paid; know -> known; grow -> grown
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Last week , July 8, 2019, we focused on the prefix <pre>, the root <graph> and the suffix <ing>.

Next week, July 22, 2019, we will be focusing on the prefix <bi>/<bin>, the root <act>/<ag>, and the suffix <ly>.
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Morpheme Monday: July 22, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 22, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #MorphemeMonday everyone! Thanks for joining the quest in expanding our students’ decoding skills beyond the basics of sound-symbol relationships to the higher level of morphological awareness. Just as a reminder, morphemes are the smallest unit of meaning in speech and they can be called prefixes, roots, suffixes and a few other terms.

A prefix is a morpheme found at the beginning of a word or root, and it changes the word’s meaning.

A root, also referred to as a base, is a morpheme basis for the word. Originally, many of the roots could not stand alone, but as the English language evolves, some have become accepted short forms of longer words. For example, the root ‘dorm’is now a commonly used term for referring to a dormitory.

A suffix is a morpheme that is added to the end of a root or a word, and can change the word’s form. For example, it can take a noun, like the word ghost, and by adding this week’s suffix -ly it changes into the adjective ghostly.

An allomorph is a morpheme that has different spellings depending on what it is attached to. For example, this week’s root <bi> has an allomorph <bin> that is used in cases where it is combined to a root word that begins with a vowel.

Teaching morphological awareness is one skill that can benefit students in three different ways:
  • It helps students decode words. If they recognize a morpheme, they already know what it says so they can say the morpheme instead of sounding it out one letter at a time.
  • It helps students with spelling words. Once students are familiar with a morpheme and the spelling rules associated with it, they can use this knowledge to spell out part of the word. For example, if you already know the morphemes bio- and -ology, you can very quickly spell biology without having to sound it out one letter at a time.
  • It helps students hypothesize or guess the meanings of words they have not come across before.
These three skills alone can save students some of the frustration associated with reading, spelling and understanding words they do not know.

Without further ado, let’s get onto this week’s morphemes.

Prefix: bi-/bin

Origin: Latin

Definition: two, twice, once in every two

Examples: binocular, bisection, bipartisan, biceps, binomial, bipedal
<bi> + <cycle> = bicycle
<bi> + <month> + <ly> = bimonthly
<bi> + <culture> + <al> = bicultural
<bin> + <ocul> + <ar> = binocular
<bi> + <colour> + <ed> = bicoloured
<bi> + <valve> + <s> = bivalves
  • The prefix <bi> is pronounced with a long vowel sound, but when it has the form of <bin> (it’s allomorph), it can be pronounced with either a long or a short vowel sound.
  • When joined to a root that begins with a vowel, <bin> is used instead of <bi>
  • This prefix is an intermediate level prefix. It should be taught in the intermediate grades when students are starting to come across words that contain it.
  • ​The prefix <bi>/<bin> is a prefix that could be taught during content classes when vocabulary such as binary, binomial and bimodal are taught.

Root: act/ag

Origin: Latin

Definition: do, go, move

Examples: action, active, activity, agency, agenda, agility
<de> + <act> + <ive> + <ate> = deactivate
<over> + <re> + <act> + <ion> = overreaction
<ag> + <ile> = agile
<trans> + <act> + <ion> = transaction
<act> + <or> = actor
<retro> + <act> + <ive> = retroactive
  • Both forms of this root are pronounced with a short vowel sound
  • These are advanced roots and should be taught once a student has a strong foundation in morphemes.

Suffix: -ly

Origin: Old English

Definition: like, in the manner of

Examples: completely, immediately, coarsely, positively, beautifully, ghostly
<most> + <ly> = mostly
<happy> + <ly> = happily
<part> + <ly> = partly
<liter> +<al> + <ly> = literally
<true> + <ly> = truly
  • This suffix has a consistent pronunciation
  • The suffix <ly> can be adverb-forming or adjective forming when it is added to a word
  • This suffix is a great one to use when introducing students to the concept of morphemes in the early grades because there are many of words where you can simply add the suffix <ly>
  • ​The following spelling rules should be taught to students when there is a discussion of spelling. Please note, this would not be appropriate if you are teaching this suffix to children in the beginning grades.
  • If the word already ends in the letter -y, change the -y to an -i and add <ly>
  • Example: <crazy> + <ly> = crazily
  • If the final syllable in the word is a consonant le syllable, drop the -le and add <ly>
  • Example: <terrible> + <ly> = terribly; <simple> + <ly> = simply
  • If the word already ends in a -ll, then just add a y
  • Example: <dull> + <ly> = dully; <full> + <ly> = fully
  • ​If the word ends in a consonant-y, change the -y to -i and add <ly>
  • Example: <busy> + <ly> = busily; <happy> + <ly> = happily
  • Exceptions: <shy> + <ly> = shyly; <sly> + <ly> = slyly
  • ​If the word ends in a vowel-y, simply add <ly>
  • Example: <coy> + <ly> = coyly; <gray> + <ly> = grayly
  • Exception: <gay> + <ly> = gaily
  • ​If the word ends in -ue, drop the -e before adding <ly>
  • Example: <due> + <ly> = duly; <true> + <ly> = truly
  • Remind students that not all words that are past tense end in the suffix <ed>. By the time most children who have English as their first language start school they have already internalized these words, but those who have English as an additional language may have to be taught these words. ex: buy -> bought; pay -> paid; know -> known; grow -> grown
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

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Last week, July 15, 2019, the prefix <re>, the root <dorm>, and the suffix <ed> were the morphemes that were covered.

Next week, July 29, 2019, the morphemes we will be focusing on are <sub>, <mini>, and <s>/<es>.
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Morpheme Monday: July 29, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 29, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday! Just as a refresher, morphemes are the smallest unit of meaning in the English language. It is important to explicitly teach students to about morphemes throughout their schooling to help develop their morphological awareness.
This week, the prefix <sub> and the root <min> are featured and they are both ones for individuals’ who are at an intermediate level of morphological awareness.

This week’s suffix <s>/<es> is a great suffix to use to introduce the concept of changing words by adding a morpheme to students in kindergarten and grade one. When you first introduce this suffix, do not overwhelm the students with all of the spelling rules associated with making a word into its plural form, just focus on the function of it. It is okay to mention the two different spellings and talk about the exceptions.

Prefix: sub-

Origin: Latin

Definition: down, near, under, secondary

Examples: submarine, subsoil, subtraction, subtropics, subdivide, substandard
<sub> + <skill> = subskill
<sub> + <total> = subtotal
<sub> + <culture> = subculture
<sub> + <merge> = submerge
<sub> + <arctic> = subarctic
<sub> + <due> = subdue
  • The prefix <sub> has a consistent pronunciation with a short vowel /u/ sound.
  • The prefix <sub> should be taught in the middle grades once students are coming across words containing the prefix more frequently.

Root: min

Origin: Latin

Definition: small, less, little

Examples: minutiae, mini, minister, minimum, minus, minstrel
<min> + <or> =minor
<min> + <uet> = minuet
<min> + <ute> = minute
<min> + <ce> = mince
<ad> + <min> + <ister> = administer
<di> + <min> + <ish> =diminish
  • The root <min> is a bound root with a consistent pronunciation with a short vowel /i/ sounds.
  • This root should be taught in once students have a solid foundation in morphemes in the middle school grades.

Suffix: -s/es-

Origin: Old English

Definition: plural, more than one

Examples: cats, minutes, trucks, apples, boxes, parties
<dog> + <s> = dogs
<wish> + <s> = wishes
<cow> + <s> = cows
<city> + <s> = cities
<Jones> + <s> = Joneses
  • The suffix <s>/<es> is considered to be an inflectional or grammatical suffix
  • The suffix <s>/<es> for plural forms of words is one of the easier suffixes and should be one of the first morphemes taught.
  • The pronunciation of the suffix varies depending on the base word it is attached to, sometimes it makes the /s/ sound like in minutes, sometimes it makes the /z/ sound like in cows, and sometimes it makes the /ez/ sound as in wishes
  • Spelling rules associated with the suffix <s>/<es> can be taught by using a word sort with students (a sample lesson description can be viewed here)
  • ​The following spelling rules are associated with plurals:
  • If the word ends in a ‘s’, ‘x’, ‘z’, ‘ch’, ‘sh’ or a consonant and the vowel ‘o’, add <es>
  • Examples: <bus> + <s> = buses; <fox> + <s> = foxes; <buzz> + <s> = buzzes; <peach> + <s> = peaches; <bush> + <s> = bushes; <potato> + <s> = potatoes
  • Exception: <ox> + <s> = oxen
  • If the word ends in a vowel followed by a ‘y’, just add <s>
  • Examples: <delay> + <s> = delays; <toy> + <s> = toys
  • If the word ends in a consonant followed by a y, change the ‘y’ to an ‘i’ and add <es>
  • Examples: <patry> + <s> = parties; <baby> + <s> = babies
  • ​Words ending in ‘ff’ just add <s> to make plural
  • Examples: <sniff> + <s> = sniffs; <cuff> + <s> = cuffs
  • Most words ending in ‘lf’ or ‘fe’ change the ‘f’ to a ‘v’ and add ‘es’
  • Examples: <calf> + <s> = calves; <life> + <s> = lives
  • Exceptions: <chief> + <s> = chiefs; <roof> + <s> = roofs; <spoof> + <s> = spoofs; <oaf> + <s> = oafs; <chef> + <s> = chefs; <handkerchief> + <s> = handkerchiefs
  • Words that work both ways: scarfs/scarves; wharfs/wharves; dwarfs/dwarves
  • Proper names pluralize like regular words, if the name ends in an ‘s’ or ‘z’ add <es>, in all other cases (including ending in ‘y’) just add s
  • Examples: <Thompson> + <s> = Thompsons; <Fernandez> + <es> = Fernandezes; <Hardy> + <s> = Hardys
*Do not worry about teaching all of the spelling rules associated with plurals when you first teach it.

Be sure to check out the more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

Last week ,July 22, 2019, we focused on the prefix <bi>/<bin>, the root <act>/<ag> and the suffix <ly>.

Next week, August 5, 2019, we will be focusing on the prefix <un>, the root <aud>, and the suffix <ion>.
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Morpheme Monday: August 12, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Aug 12, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday!

Morphemes are the smallest unit of meaning in a word.

Morphological Awareness refers to an understanding of these meaningful units in words.

Morphological awareness is a very important piece of the literacy pie and one that is often left out in both today’s teacher education programs and classrooms.

Teaching students morphemes opens up a whole new way of understaning the English language. It provides them with extra tools they can use when they need to read and spell words with morphemes they know. It also can give them clues as to the meaning of words they are not familiar with.

This week’s root is a perfect example of a morpheme that can be taught to students in the intermediate grades to help them hypothesize word meanings as they encounter new academic words.

Prefix: mis-

Origin: Old English and Latin

Definition: wrong, bad

Examples: misfortune, mismanage, miscalculate, misspelled, misdirection, misdemeaner
<mis> + <take> = mistake
<mis> + <treat> = mistreat
<mis> + <print> + <s> = misprints
<mis> + <under> + <stand> = misunderstand
  • The prefix <mis> has a consistent pronunciation of a short vowel /i/ sound.
  • This prefix is commonly used in everyday language and has a simple meaning that younger children can easily grasp. As such, it is one that can be taught to students fairly easily once they know a few other prefixes.

Root: ast/astro

Origin: Greek

Definition: star, stars, outer space

Examples: asteroid, astrophysics, asterick, astrochemistry, disaster, astrologue
<astro> + <graph> = astrograph
<astro> + <photo> + <graph> = astrophotograph
<astro> + <ology> = astrology
<astro> + <the> + <ology> = astrotheology
  • The root <ast> is consistently pronunced with a short /a/ vowel sound. In it’s allomorph <astro>, they pronunciation is less consistent.
  • Depending on the resource you check, the root may be listed as <aster> instead of <ast>.
  • ​This root is one that can be taught in a science lesson when students are first taught about astronomy. This is a perfect time to use a structured word inquiry or a word matrix to discover different words that may be covered in the unit. 

Suffix: -ness

Origin: Old English

Definition: state of

Examples: witness, roundness, hollowness, furiousness, madness, happiness
<alert> + <ness> = alertness
<new> + <ness> = newness
<polite> + <ness> = politeness
<light> + <ness> = lightness
  • This suffix has a consistent pronuciation with a short /e/ vowel sound
  • This suffix is noun forming.
  • This suffix is primarily used with Old English base words.
  • This suffix can be taught to students who have a basic understanding of suffixes.
  • ​When adding this suffix to a base word that ends in ‘y’, change the y to ‘i’ before adding the suffix
Be sure to check out the more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: August 18, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Aug 19, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday!

It is the time of the year that many students are starting to head back to school after summer break. This year, why not make sure students learn some new morphemes. This can be done both at home and at school.

The more morphologically aware an individual is, the more equipped they will be when they encouter a word they are not familiar with. This is particularly helpful as they start reading more academic and informational texts. The majority of the new words students come across in this type of reading material contain morphemes. Not only will it help them with the pronunciation of the word, it will aslo give them clues as to it’s meaning.

Prefix: inter-

Origin: Latin

Definition: between

Examples: intercontinental, intermediate, intermarry, interlude, interlope, international
<inter> + <act> = interact
<inter> + <ject> + <ion> = interjection
<inter> + <sect> + <ion> = intersection
<inter> + <cept> + <ion> = interception
<inter> + <com> = intercom
  • The prefix <inter> has a consistent pronunciation of /i/ /n/ /t/ /er/
  • This prefix is fairly common and can be taught to students in the middle school grades

Root: cent/centi

Origin: Latin

Definition: hundred, hundredth

Examples: percentile, mid-century, centurion, centuple, centiliter
<centi> + <pede> = centipede
<per> + <cent> + <age> = percentage
<centi> + <meter> = centimeter
<per> + <cent> = percent
  • The root <cent> has a consistent pronunciation of /s/ /e/ /n/ /t/
  • When referring to specific time period with century, a hyphen is used between the period and century
  • Examples: late-century, seventeenth-century, turn-of-the-century
  • ​This root is one that has limited use, it is one that is best taught in context in science when using vocabulary containing it or when introducing the concept of centuries.
  • This is one of the few Latin roots that can stand alone. For example, in many countries, a fraction of their currency unit is considered a cent. For example, one dollar equals 100 cents. One of these coins is referred to as a penny or a cent.

Suffix: -ish

Origin: Old English

Definition: origin, resembling or like

Examples: clownish, fortyish, ravish, Spanish, dullish
<Dane> + <ish> = Danish
<sheep> + <ish> = sheepish
<self> + <ish> = selfish
<style> + <ish> = stylish
<green> + <ish> = greenish
  • The suffix <ish> has a consistent pronunciation of /i/ /sh/
  • This suffix is fairly common and younger students who have a foundation of the common suffixes like <ing>, <ed>, and <s> enjoy learning this suffix.
  • When adding the suffix <ish> to a base word ending in the letter ‘e’, drop the ‘e’ and add the suffix. Example: <tickle> + <ish> = ticklish
  • When adding it to a single syllable word with a short vowel sound that ends with one consonant, double the final consonant. Example: <red> + <ish> = reddish
Last week, August 12, 2019, we focused on the prefix <mis>, the root <aster> and the suffix <ness>.

Next week, August 26, 2019, we will be focusing on the prefix <dis>, the root <therm>, and the suffix <ous>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

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#morphememonday: August 26, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Aug 26, 2019
Happy #morphememonday!

I have always thought that morphology is an important, but often missed part of reading instruction. In my own teacher education program, there was not a single mention of morphological awareness. Unfortunately, my experience was not unique, which is why I created #morphememonday.

It’s funny, I never knew how much of a hot topic morphemes were until I started this blog. So here is my disclaimer:
I, Dr. Kathryn Garforth, do not consider myself to be an expert in the field of morphology. That being said, I do consider myself educated in morphology and I check several sources before creating my posts to make sure the information I am posting is as accurate as possible.

Currently, the majority of my sources are based on Marcia K. Henry’s work and other materials commonly available through Orton-Gillingham and the International Dyslexia Association.

I am working on expanding my knowledge base on the linguistics side of morphology in order to make sure I am providing information that is appropriate.
The reason why I created #morphememonday was to try to help anyone who wants to learn more about morphology by giving them a place to do so on a regular basis. To my knowledge, this is the only blog out there that provides this information on a weekly basis.

If you have any concerns about this post or any of my other posts on Morphology, I welcome any constructive criticism but please keep your comments civil and professional.

All of this week’s morphemes have allomorphs, which means that the spelling of the morpheme can change depending on what it is attached to.

Now onto this week’s morphemes!

Prefix: dis-

Origin: Latin

Allomorphs: di; dif (in front of a base element starting with an f)

Definition: apart, not, opposite of

Examples: disarm, discharge, difficult, diffuse, diversity, directive
<di> + <verse> = diverse
<di> + <rect> + <or> = director
<dif> + <fract> + <ion> = diffraction
<dis> + <inter> + <est> = disinterest
<dis> + <miss> + <al> = dismissal
<dis> + <lodge> = dislodge
  • This is a common prefix that can be taught to younger students. When first introducing <dis>, I would mention its allomorphs but I would not try to go through them in one day. I would introduce <dis> one day and then the others on the following days. This way the concept will still be fresh in their heads but it will not be too much at once.

Root: therm

Origin: Greek

Allomorph: thermo

Definition: heat, hot

Examples: isothermal, thermoelectrical, thermion, thermonuclear, heterothermy, heliothermic
<hypo> + <therm> +<ia> = hypothermia
<exo> + <therm> + <ic> = exothermic
<geo> + <therm> + <al> = geothermal
<thermo> + <graph> = thermograph
<photo> + <therm> + <ic> = photothermic
  • This is a root that is best taught in context. It could be mentioned when talking about temperature with younger students. There are also several points in the science curriculum where it could be revisited.

Suffix: -ous

Origin: Latin

Allomorphs: cious, ious

Definition: full of, having, chemical terms

Examples: dubious, judicious, hazardous, sulphurous, ambitious, repetitious
<numer> + <ous> = numerous
<fame> + <ous> = famous
<in> + <fect>+ <ious> = infectious
<zeal> + <ous> = zealous
<covet> + <ous> = covetous
  • This suffix is a more advanced suffix and should be taught in the middle school or high school grades.
  • This suffix is adjective forming.
  • This suffix is primarily used with Latin roots.
  • In some programs ‘tious’ is also taught as a root. However, the ‘t’ is actually the final letter of the base element and <ious> is the suffix.
  • ​If the suffix <ous> is attached to a base element ending in the letter ‘e’, it is dropped before adding the suffix.
Last week, August 18, 2019, morphemes were the prefix <inter>, the root <cent> and the suffix <ish>.

Next week, September 2, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <hemi>, the root <sect> and the suffix <able>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

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#morphememonday: August 26, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Aug 26, 2019
Happy September Everyone!

For those of you in Canada or the United States, Happy Labour Day too!

Where I live, September means it is time to head back to school and get ready for the fall. This year, I hope more teachers take the time to learn about what morphological awareness is and how they might be able to incorporate it into their everyday teaching with only a little bit of increased effort.

If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com
Without further ado, here are this week’s morphemes:

Prefix: hemi-

Origin: Greek

Definition: half

Examples: hemispherical, hemispasm, hemicardia, hemipyramid, hemiglyph
<hemi> + <sphere> = hemisphere
<hemi> + <sect> = hemisect
<hemi> + <cycle> = hemicycle
  • Technically speaking, <hemi> is considered a Greek Combining Form, however, it is often taught as a prefix.
  • ​This is an advanced morpheme that can be taught to older students and discussed in context when it arises in content classes.

Root: sec

Origin: Latin

Definition: cut

Allomorph: sec

Examples: insect, trisect, midsection, hemisect, prosector, dissect
<bi> + <sect> + <or> = bisector
<re> + <sect> + <ion> = resection
<sect> + <or> = sector
<inter> + <sect> + <ion> = intersection
<sect> + <ion> + <al> = sectional
  • This root is an excellent choice for teaching in mathematics and or science lessons where it can be taught in context.
  • ​This root is one that should be taught to students in the upper intermediate/middle high school grades when students are beginning to encounter words contain it on a more frequent basis.

Suffix: -able

Origin: Latin

Definition: able, can do

Examples: comfortable, drinkable, flammable, disputable, fixable, laughable
<credit> + <able> = creditable
<eat> + <able> = eatable
<explain> + <able> = explainable
<move> + <able> = movable
<suit> + <able> = suitable
  • This suffix is adjective forming.
  • This suffix is typically used with Old-English base words.
  • This suffix is one that can be taught to younger children, once they have been introduced to the more frequent suffixes.
  • Remind students when adding this suffix to a base word ending in an ‘e’, to drop the ‘e’ before adding the suffix <able>.
Last week, August 26, 2019, morphemes were the prefix <dis>, the root <therm> and the suffix <ous>.

Next week, September 9, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <uni>, the root <spire> and the suffix <ian>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: September 9, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Sep 9, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays, Uncategorized
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

I hope you found some way to promote literacy yesterday on UNESCO’s International Literacy Day. If you didn’t, there is no reason you can’t find a way to promote literacy any other day of the year. So in my efforts to promote the importance of Morphological Awareness in reading instruction, here are this week’s morphemes.

Prefix: uni-

Origin: Latin & Greek

Definition: one

Examples: unicolour, unification, unify, unilateral, unanimous, Unitarian
<uni> + <cycle> = unicycle
<uni> + <valve> = univalve
<uni> + <form> = uniform
<uni> + <sex> = unisex
  • Please note that technichally speaking, <uni> is considered to be a combining form. This means that it is a word element that is used in the formation of derivatives.
  • ​There are some instances when it is combined with a base that begins with a vowel that the ‘i’ is dropped.
  • ​This prefix can be taught to students in the middle grades once they understand that parts of words can convey meaning.
  • ​As I am writing this post, I think it would be fun to work with younger students and discuss the similarities and differences between a unicycle, a bicycle, and a tricycle. Let me know how this goes if you try it out!

Root: spire

Origin: Latin

Definition: to breathe

Examples: aspire, conspiracy, perspiration, spirit, expire, inspiring
<con> + <spire> + <acy> = conspiracy
<trans> + <spire> = transpire
<re> + <spire> + <ate> = respirate
<un> + <in> + <spire> + <ing> = uninspiring
  • The spelling of this root can change depending on what it is combinded with. For example, in the word expire, the ‘s’ is dropped but for the word conspiracy, the ‘e’ is dropped.
  • ​This root should be taught to students who have a good repertoire of other roots.

Suffix: -ian

Origin: Latin

Definition: one having a certain skill or art; having to do with

Examples: Olympian, civilian, politician, electrician, logician
<Italy> + <ian> = Italian
<optic> +<ian> = optician
<magic> + <ian> = magician
<Australia> + <ian> = Austrailian
  • This suffix is noun forming and refers to a person
  • This suffix could be taught in the intermediate grades when students are learning about the countries of the world and discussing what people from certain countries are called.
  • This suffix should be taught once students have a solid foundation in other, more common suffixes.
Last week, September 2, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <hemi>, the root <sect> and the suffix <able>.

Next week, September 16, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <mid>, the root <max> and the suffix <ship>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

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Morpheme Monday: September 16, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Sep 16, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday Everyone!
I hope everyone is settling nicely back into a routine now that school has started again. While I enjoy the break from routine in the summer, I find I am more productive when things have a bit more of a schedule.

Prefix: mid-

Origin: Old English

Definition: Middle

Examples: midwestern, midpoint, midyear, midnight, midsection, midwinter
<mid> + <air> = midair
<mid> + <ship> + <man> = midshipman
<mid> + <way> = midway
<mid> + <wife> = midwife
<mid> + <town> = midtown
  • <mid> is a combining form, this means it is a word element that is used in forming derivatives.
  • ​<mid> should be taught to students once they are coming across derivatives using it.
  • ​When teaching <mid>, it can be discussed how using it helps provide the listener/reader with clarity.
  • For example when speaking about a midsummer festival instead of a summer festival, one can assume that the festival occurs in the middle of the summer and not at any time during the summer whereas if you just heard the vague description of a summer festival, it would be harder to guess when the festival would take place.

Root: grat

Origin: Latin

Definition: pleasing, thanks

Examples: grateful, gratification, congratulate, ingratitude

The root <grat> has a allomorph, <gre>

Examples of <gre>: agree, disagreement, agreeable
  • The root <grat> and its allomorph <gre> would be best taught during a structured word inquiry to older students and to students who are struggling with spelling/reading words that contain this root.

Suffix: -ship

Origin: Old English

Definition: state, dignity, skill, quality, office or profession

Examples: citizenship, seamanship, relationship, showmanship, ladyship, professorship
<own> + <er> + <ship> = ownership
<horse> + <man> + <ship> = horsemanship
<read> + <er> + <ship> = readership
<chair> + <man> + <ship> = chairmanship
<kin> + <ship> = kinship
  • The suffix <ship> is noun forming, this means when it is affixed (added) to a word, the word becomes a noun.
  • This suffix is suitable for students who understand what suffixes are and have a good foundation of the more basic and common suffixes.
  • Middle school students could be given a list of nouns containing words with the suffix <ship> and asked to sort them into categories based on meaning.
Last week, September 9, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <uni>, the root <spire> and the suffix <ian>.

Next week, September 23, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <semi>, the root <phobia> and the suffix <er>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Morpheme Monday: September 23, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Sep 23, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

I hope you are enjoying the journey to learn more about morphology by learning more about the different prefixes, roots, and suffixes found in the English language.

Teaching etymology and morphology to all students from a young age allows children to make more sense of English’s complex writing system and provides them with an additional tool for understanding meaning when they are reading text with unfamiliar vocabulary.

Prefix: semi-

Definition: half, partly, twice

Examples: semiprivate, semicolon, semitropical, semiarid, semiprecious, semicirlce
<semi> + <week> + <ly> = semiweekly
<semi> + <glaze> + <ed> = semiglazed
<semi> + <dark> + <ness> = semidarkness
<semi> + <sweet> = semisweet
<semi> + < colon> = semicolon
<semi> + <solid> = semisolid
  • This prefix can be taught to younger students as it comes up in context. For example, when asking them to sit in a semicircle you can explain how <semi> means half so it means that you are asking them to sit in a half circle. At this point you could discuss other words that begin with the prefix <semi> and discuss how it affects the meaning of the base word.
  • ​If you are teaching prefixes to students explicitly, this is one can wait until the students have a solid foundation in prefixes that are more common.
  • ​This prefix is another example of a morpheme like <dorm> that in the last half-century has been adapted into some English dialects as a short form for the word semi-truck

Root: phobia

Origin: Greek

Definition: irrational fear of, or hatred; one who fears or hates

Allomorphs: phobic, phobe

Examples: technophobia, Francophobia, hypnophobia, cyclophobia, Anglophobe, xenophobia
<photo> + <phobia> = photophobia
<zoo> + <phobia> = zoophobia
<eco> + phobia> = ecophobia
<aqua> + <phobia> = aquaphobia
<hemo> + <phobia> = hemophobia
<chrono> + <phobia> = chronophobia
  • Technically speaking, <phobia> and it’s allomorphs are considered a Greek combining form.
  • ​<phobia> is a morpheme that may be best to discuss in context as it is only used when related to fears. Younger students could be taught this morpheme during a discussion about different fears they have. They may enjoy guessing what different technical names for different fears are.
  • ​Fredd Culbertson has compiled a large list of phobias that can be viewed at www.phobialist.com

Suffix: -er

Origin: Old English

Definition: person or thing; comparative

Examples: reporter, islander, manager, bigger, greener, simpler
<bake> + <er> = baker
<paint> + <er> = painter
<teach> + <er> = teacher
<fast> + <er> = faster
<hard> + <er> = harder
<smooth> + <er> = smoother
  • The suffix <er> can be either noun forming or an adjective forming when it is used for a comparative degree
  • In both cases it is typically used with Old English base words
  • This common suffix is appropriate to teach to students when they are first learning about suffixes. After teaching this suffix,
  • ​Appropriate spelling rules associated with adding a suffix should be taught at the same time as this suffix
  • The 1 -1 – 1 Spelling Rule: When adding a suffix starting with a vowel onto a single syllable word that has one vowel making a short vowel sound and one consonant, double the final consonant before adding the suffix. ex: <mad> + <er> = madder, <run> + <er> = runner; <hop> + <er> = hopper
  • Drop the Silent e Rule: When the last syllable in a word has a silent e at the end (ex: smile, decide, slope) drop the ‘e’ before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. ex: <smile> + <er> = smiler; <bake> + <er> = baker; <divide> + <er> = divider
  • Change the y to i Rule: When the word ends in the letter y, change the y to i and add <er>. ex: <cloudy> + <er> = cloudier; <happy> + <er> = happier; <funny> + <er> = funnier; <slippery> + <er> = slipperier
Last week, September 16, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <mid>, the root <max> and the suffix <ship>.

Next week, September 30, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <poly>, the root <ject> and the suffix <dom>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything I can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Morpheme Monday: September 30, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Sep 30, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Can you believe this is the 12th #morphememoday!?!

Thank you for joining me on my morpheme movement! The importance of explicitly teaching morphology is missing from the majority of today’s classrooms. This week we will be focusing on the Greek combining form that is often taught as a prefix <poly>, the Latin root <ject> and the Old English suffix <dom>.

Prefix: poly-

Origin: Greek

Definition: many, more than one

Examples: polydactyl, polyclinic, polypharmacy, polysyllabic, polytheism, polydemic
<poly> + <graph> = polygraph
<poly> + <math> = polymath
<poly> + <chrome> = polychrome
<poly> + <nom> + <ial> = polynomial
<poly> + <morph> + <ic> = polymorphic
<poly> + <pod> = polypod
  • Technically speaking, <poly> is a Greek combining form but it is often taught as a prefix. Some examples of words where it is nor found at the beginning of the word are monopolize and duopoly.
  • ​The best way to introduce <poly> is in the context of geometry. It is a great morpheme to teach while discussing the different shapes such as a polygon or polyhedron. At this point, you can mention how <poly> is a Greek morpheme meaning many. You can ask the student about other morphemes found in the different names of shapes such as quad, tri, and hex.

Root: ject

Origin: Latin

Definition: to throw or lie

Examples: ejection, interject, subject, introject, projection, objectively
<inter> + <ject> + <ion> = interjection
<de> + <ject> + <ed> + <ness> = dejectedness
<pro> + <ject> + <ion> + <ist> = projectionist
<con> + <ject> + <ure> = conjecture
<in> + <ject> + <ion> = injection
<re> + <ject> = reject
  • The root <ject> has an allomorphs (or alternative forms) <jac> as in adjacent
  • ​This root is best taught to students who have a good repertoire of some of the more common roots. These student will likely be in the higher elementary grades or in high school.

Suffix: -dom

Origin: Old English

Definition: state or condition

Examples: martyrdom, newspaperdom, officialdom, heirdom, sheikdom, wisdom
<free> + <dom> = freedom
<star> + <dom> = stardom
<pope> + <dom> = popedome
<king> + <dom> = kingdom
<pagan> + <dom> = pagandom
<earl> + <dom> = earldom
  • This suffix is not one that should be a high priority for students out of context.
  • This suffix could be taught in context during history lessons or when reading literature about medieval times as there are many terms refer to during this time period that contains the suffix <dom> such as earldom, kingdom, dukedom, etc…
Last week, September 23, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <semi>, the root <phobia> and the suffix <er>.

Next week, October 7, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <dys>, the root <lex> and the suffix <ia>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

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Morpheme Monday: October 7, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 8, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday!

This is the first Monday of October and October is Dyslexia Awareness Month.

Dyslexia is a language-based specific learning disability that affects at least one in ten students. An individual with dyslexia has unexpected difficulty learning how to read and spell.

If you would like to read more information about dyslexia, please refer to the International Dyslexia Association’s website.

I have been to several presentations where the presenter begins their discussion of dyslexia by breaking it down into its morphemes.

This week’s post is going to focus on the three morphemes found in dyslexia.

Prefix: dys-

Origin: Greek

Definition: bad, difficulty with

Examples: dysgraphia, dysentery, dyskenesia dysentery, dystrophy, dysplasia
<dys> + <gen> + <ic> = dysgenic
<dys> + <ton> + <ia> = dystonia
<dys> + <funct> + <ion> = dysfunction
<dys> + <rhythm> + <ia> = dysrhythmia
  • This prefix is one that is typically found in technical terms for conditions. It may be best to teach this prefix in context to older students.

Root: lex

Origin: Greek

Definition: word

Examples: lexigraphy, lexicologist, lexicalize, lexeme, lexiconophonist, lexis
<dys> + <lex> + <ic> = dyslexic
<a> + <lex> + <ia> = alexia
<para> + <lex> + <ia> = paralexia
<lex> + <i> + <cal>= lexical
<hyper> + <lex> + <ic> = hyperlexic
  • <lex> is technically a Greek combining form
  • <lex> is often followed by the connector vowel <i> in words to smooth the transition between the /x/ and the next consonant.
  • ​This combining form is often found in technical terms and is one that can be taught in context to older students.

Suffix: -ia

Origin: Greek & Latin

 
Definition: derived from, related to

Examples: aphasia, echolalia, schizophrenia, regalia, hypochondria, bacteria
<dys> + <graph> + <ia> = dysgraphia
<hyper> + <lex> + <ia> = hyperlexia
<Arab> + <ia> = Arabia
<a> + <phas> + <ia> = aphasia
<med> + <ia> = media
  • This suffix can be found in words from a variety of topics, so students will benefit from explicit teaching of it.
  • When teaching this to students, ask them if they can come up with an explanation as to how the word came to be. For example, the Columbia river was named after the explorer Christopher Columbus. Instead of being called the Columbus River, the suffix <ia> was added to form the base element, Christopher Columbus’ last name to create the word Columbia.
Last week, September 30, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <semi>, the root <phobia> and the suffix <er>.

Next week, October 14, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <sub>, the root <photo> and the suffix <y>.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

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#MorphemeMonday: October 14, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 15, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #MorphemeMonday Everyone!

Happy Canadian Thanksgiving to our Canadian Readers. I am thankful to all of my readers who are taking their own time to help support their students’ learning.

Prefix: sub-

Origin: Latin

Definition: under, beneath, below; secondary

Examples: subsequent, substitution, subsist, subservient, subalternate
<sub> + <class> = subclass
<sub> + < soil> = subsoil
<sub> + <junct> + <ive> = subjunctive
<sub> + <script> + <ion> = subscription
<sub> + <ject> + <ion> = subjection
  • This prefix has several variants where the final letter ‘b’ will change depending on the first letter of the base element it is attached to.
  • suc – used before base elements beginning with a ‘c’ - Examples: succumb, success
  • ​suf – used before base elements beginning with a ‘f’ - Examples: suffer, suffix
  • ​sug – used before base elements beginning with a ‘g’ - Example: suggestion
  • ​sum – used before base elements beginning with a ‘m’ - Example: summit, summarize
  • ​sup – used before base elements beginning with a ‘p’ - Examples: suppressive, suppose
  • ​sus – used before base elements beginning with a ‘p’ or ‘t’ - Examples: suspect, suspicion, sustain, sustenance
  • This is a common prefix that intermediate students will come across on a regular basis. In the first lesson, I would just discuss the most common form <sub>. In follow-up lessons when reviewing the prefix, I would introduce some of the alternate forms of the prefix.

Root: photo

Origin: Greek

Definition: light

Examples: photocopy, photosensitive, photochemical, photosynthesis, phototropism
<photo> + <play> = photoplay
<tele> + <photo> + <graph> + <y> = telephotography
<photo> + <stat> = photostat
<photo> + <micro> + <scope> = photomicroscope
<astro> + <photo> + <graph> = astrophotograph
  • Technically speaking, this is a Greek combining form.
  • Since the etymology (where it is from) of this combining form is Greek, the /f/ sound is spelled with a ‘ph’ instead of an ‘f’.
  • ​This combining form is commonly found in many scientific words and it is one that would be useful for intermediate students to learn in their science classes. This can be taught in context or as part of an introductory welcome back to science lesson.

Suffix: -y

Origin: Old English

Definition: inclined to

Examples: blotchy, brawny, dreary, floppy, seedy, wordy
<fog> + <y> = foggy
<bush> + <y> = bushy
<scrap> + <y> = scrappy
<milk> + <y> = milky
<health> + <y> = healthy
  • This suffix is adjective forming, meaning it changes the base word into an adjective.
  • This suffix is typically used with Old English base words.
  • ​This suffix is great to teach to younger students because they have fun creating their own words.
  • ​It is important to discuss the 1-1-1 Doubling Rule, when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a single syllable word, with a short vowel sound and one final consonant, double the consonant before adding the suffix. It will give you an opportunity to review short and long vowel sounds.For example, the word skin is a one-syllable word with a short vowel sound and ending in one final consonant so <skin> + <y> = skinny>. However, even though the word fish is one syllable with a short vowel sound, it has two consonants so <fish> +<y> = fishy.
Last week, October 7, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <dys>, the root <lex> and the suffix <ia>.

Next week, October 21, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <in>, the root <mit> and the suffix <ity>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: October 21, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 22, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

Morphology is a wonderful thing and unfortunately it is still missing out of most curricula. Thank you for taking the time to learn more about it.

This week, our prefix <in> has two definitions; I have separated them so there are two prefix entries this week.

Prefix: in-

Origin: Latin, Old English

Definition: in, within, toward

Examples: index, incorporate, incision, incarcerate, increase
<in> + <dent> = indent
<in> + <flux> = influx
<in> + <stead> = instead
<in> + <side> = inside
<in> + <board> = inboard
  • This prefix has alternative spellings of ‘i’, ‘il’, ‘im’, or ‘ir’
  • ​This prefix is suitable for students who have a solid foundation in prefixes and it is one that should be explicitly taught.
  • ​When teaching affixes with more than one meaning, it is best to teach them one meaning at a time.

Root: miss/mit

Origin: Latin

Definition: to send

Examples: transmissible, omission, permittable, commitment, omit
<per> + <mit> = permit
<ad> + <miss> + <ion> = admission
<trans> + <mit> + <er> = transmitter
<miss> + <ion> + <ary> = missionary
<sub> + <mit> + <ed> = submitted
<re> + <mit> = remit
  • This root should be taught to intermediate students. I could see this root being taught during a history unit when discussing different conflicts that have occurred. You could give students a word bank containing words with this root and ask them to create a story based on a historical event using as many as the words as they could.
  • When you teach this root, you should mention that the ‘t’ in <mit> will have to be doubled when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.

Suffix: -ty

Origin: Latin

Definition: quality of

Examples: charity, humanity, timidity, acidity, heredity
<in> + <sane> +<i> + <ty> = insanity
<act> + <ive> + <i> + <ty> = activity
<stupid> + <i> + <ty> = stupidity
<minor> + <i> + <ty> = minority
<author> + <i> + <ty> = authority
  • This suffix is best taught to older students who are starting to come across words containing this suffix on a more frequent basis.
  • This suffix often has the connector vowel <i> between it and the base element it is attached to.
  • When teaching this suffix, mention that if the base word you are attaching it to ends with an ‘e’, when the new word is formed, it will be dropped.
Last week, October 14, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <sub>, the root <photo> and the suffix <y>.

Next week, October 28, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <tele>, the root <anni> and the suffix <ade>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: October 28, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Oct 28, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

This is one of my favourite weeks of the year because this week is Halloween. In my neighbourhood, there is a scarecrow competition and lots of spooky houses. This week, I have created a Halloween Themed Phobia Crossword puzzle for my students.

Prefix: tele-

Origin: Greek

Meaning: Over a distance

Examples: telethon, telecommute, telemeter, televise, telecast
<tele> + <photo> = telephoto
<tele> + <graph> + <ic> = telegraphic
<tele> + <path> + <y> = telepathy
<tele> + <ology> = teleology
<tele> + <port> = teleport
<tele> + <scope> = telescope
  • Technically speaking, <tele> is considered a Greek combining form but it is often taught as a prefix
  • ​When <tele> is attached to a root starting with a vowel, it may take the form of <tel>
<tele> is a fairly common combining form that can be taught in context in science classes when introducing the telescope. If it is not taught in context, it should be explicitly taught during the upper elementary/middle school years

Root: anni

Origin: Latin

Meaning: year

Examples: annals, annuity, decennium, millenium, bicentennial
<super> + <annu> + <ate> = superannuate
<bi> + <annu> + <al> = biannual
<per> + <enni> + <ate> = perennate
<inter> + <annu> + <al> = interannual
<annu> +<ity> + <s> = annuities
  • This root can be represented by the following alternative spellings: anni, annu or enni
  • It is advantageous for students to understand this root because it appears frequently in words associated with celebrations and time periods.
  • ​This root is best taught in context but should be explicitly taught to students in high school, if they have not learned it before

Suffix: -ade

Origin: Greek and Latin

Meaning: result of action, product of, persons acting

Examples: cascade, marinade, charade, cascade, renegade
<lime> + <ade> = limeade
<park> + <ade> = parkade
<escape> + <ade> = escapade
<block> + <ade> = blockade
<pom> + <ade> = pomade
  • Words containing this suffix are nouns
  • While this suffix is not excedingly common, it is worth teaching to students who have a good repertoire of suffixes.
Last week, October 21, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <in>, the root <miss> and the suffix <ity>.

Next week, November 4, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <geo>, the root <serv> and the suffix <en>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

Subscribe to Garforth Education’s Blog if you would like to be notified when a new post is up.

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#morphememonday: November 4, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Nov 5, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone! Can you believe that now it is November, #morphememondays has existed for 4 months and this is the 18th post. In those 18 posts, we have covered 51 morphemes!

I hope you are enjoying this journey as much as I am; so without further ado, let’s continue down the path of becoming more morphologically aware!

Prefix: geo-

Origin: Greek

Definition: earth, soil, global

Examples: geoponic, geocyclic, geometrician, geodetic, geognosy
<geo> + <graph> + <y> = geography
<geo> + <ology> + <ist> = geologist
<geo> + <morph> + <ic> = geomorphic
<geo> + <therm> + <al> = geothermal
<geo> + <metre> + <y> = geometry
  • Technically speaking, <geo> is a Greek combining form
  • ​This combining form is one that can easily be taught in context in social studies class and reviewed anytime a new vocabulary word is introduced with it.

Root: serv

Origin: Latin

Definition: keep, save, guard

Examples: serve, service, observatory, servile, conserve
<serv> + <er> = server
<sub> + <serv> = subserve
<serv> + i + <ette> = serviette
<pre> + <serv> + <ate> + <ion> = preservation
<re> + <serv> + <ist> = reservist
  • This base is one that while helpful, it is not essential it is taught during elementary school. However, it could be taught in context when vocabulary words containing it are introduced in the curriculum.
  • This base may have a connector vowel between it and a suffix to ease the transition between the two. Example: Serviette
  • If this base is found at the end of a word, then an ‘e’ is added to it because English words do not end with the letter ‘v’. Examples: observe & deserve

Suffix: -en

Origin: Old English

Definitions: made of, to make, plural form

Examples: oxen, written, fallen, woolen, heighten
<sharp> + <en> = sharpen
< broad> + <en> = broaden
<froze> + <en> = frozen
<molt> + <en> = molten
<soft> + <en> = soften
  • This suffix and its various meanings are important to understand. It should be taught on two separate occasions.
  • This suffix should be taught as an extension to plural forms of words as it comes up in the curriculum. This should not be formally introduced until students understand plurals on a more basic level.
  • ​The definitions of ‘to make’ and ‘made of’ should be taught so that individuals can understand how it can be used to discuss the materials things are made of. 
Last week, October 28, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <tele>, the root <anni> and the suffix <ade>.

Next week, November 11, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <deca>, the root <rupt> and the suffix <ist>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: November 11, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Nov 11, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Today it’s #morphememonday but more importantly, November 11th is a day to remember all those men and women wounded by war and those who made the ultimate sacrifice and gave up their lives. Any war is a traumatizing experience for those affected by it and there will always be scars, even if you can’t see them. The least we can do is observe a moment of silence for those who have been affected by war.

Prefix: deca-

Origin: Greek

Definition: ten

Examples: December, decathlon, decahedron, decameter, decalitre, decathlete
<deca> + <gon> = decagon
<deca> + <gram> = decagram
<deca> + <ade> = decade
<deca> + <pod> = decapod
<deca> + <style> = decastyle
  • Technically speaking, <deca> is a Greek combining form that is often taught as a prefix
  • ​Other forms of <deca> include:
  • <dec> -> when affixed to a base beginning with a vowel
  • ​<deka>, <dek>
  • This combining form is an important one for students to learn because once they understand what it means, it will allow them to deconstruct words they don’t know to create a hypothesis for their meaning 
  • I think it would be great for teachers in the intermediate grades and higher to include an etymological lesson at the beginning of each new month. So, in the month of December, teachers would discuss how in the Roman calendar, December was the tenth month of the year hence the name December. At this point, they can brainstorm other words that contain <deca> and discuss their meaning.
  • ​When teaching this combining form in math and science it would be a good idea to discuss <deci> at the same time because it means one-tenth

Root: rupt

Origin: Latin

Definition: to break or burst

Examples: eruption, corrupt, irrupt, rupture, bankruptcy
<inter> + <rupt> + <ion> = interruption
<dis> + <rupt> = disrupt
<ab> + <rupt> + <ly> = abruptly
<ir> + <rupt> + <ive> = irruptive
<rupt> + <ure> = rupture
  • This root is one that can easily be taught to younger students in context when they are being taught about volcanos.
  • When this root is taught to older students, it will be possible to have a deeper conversation about how the meaning of rupt fits the word.

Suffix: -ist

Origin: Greek

Definition: one who

Examples: humorist, copyist, violinist, socialist, scientist, florist
<geo> + <ology> + <ist> = geologist
<type> + <ist> = typist
<tour> + <ist> = tourist
<violin> + <ist> = violinist
<novel> + <ist> = novelist
  • This suffix is noun forming.
  • ​When adding this suffix to base words ending in ‘e’ or ‘y’, the ‘e’ or ‘y’ is dropped before the suffix is added.
  • ​Younger students can grasp this suffix fairly easily and they will often enjoy coming up with words containing <ist>.
  • ​The suffix <ist> is related to the suffixes <ism> and <ize>. These suffixes can often be added to the same base elements to make nouns. There are some base elements that will work with all three suffixes (social: socialist, socialize and socialism), some that work with only two of the suffixes (tour: tourism and tourist) while others will only have one that will work. With older students, they can be asked to come up with a group of examples of base words that work for all three suffixes, just two of the suffixes and only one.
Last week, November 4, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <geo>, the root <serv> and the suffix <en>.

Next week, November 18, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <super>, the root <aqua> and the suffix <less>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: November 18, 2019.

by Dr. Garforth | Nov 18, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday! The three morphemes featured this week are all ones that younger students can have fun learning.

Prefix: super-

Origin: Latin
 
Definition: over, above, besides, exceedingly

Examples: superstructure, superficial, superstition, superhuman, superlative
<super> + <vise> = supervise
<super> + <sede> = supersede
<super> + <ior> = superior
<super> + <sonic> = supersonic
<super> + <im> + <pose> = superimpose
  • This prefix is fun to teach younger children in context when talking about superheroes and their superhuman abilities. They can have fun thinking of different superpowers a superhero could have. It will allow you to scaffold in other words that have the prefix <super> into the lesson.
  • ​There are several children’s books that talk about superheroes. Reading one of these books to your class or with your student would be a fun way to naturally scaffold teaching this prefix.
  • ​It should be reviewed with older students to ensure they understand some of the other definitions associated with super.

Root: aqua

Origin: Latin

Definition: Water

Examples: aqueous, aquanaut, Aquarius, aqualung, aquarium
<aqua> + <farm> = aquafarm
<aqua> + <cade> = aquacade
<aqua> + <plane> + <ing> = aquaplaning
<aqua> + <tint> = aquatint
<aqua> + <cul> + <ture> + <al> = aquacultural
  • This root can be scaffolded into lessons with primary students about aquatic life. If you list a series of familiar words containing the root <aqua> such as aquatic, aquarium, aquamarine, and aquanaut, they may be able to come up with the meaning on their own.
  • When you are in the library with your students, you could pick a book from the non-fiction section and ask them to each find a book that contains the root <aqua> in the title. They can search through the book with a friend to try and find the different words in the book that contain the root <aqua>.

Suffix: -less

Origin: Old English

Definition: without

Examples: pitiless, merciless, pointless, nameless, sleepless
<speech> + <less> = speechless
<hope> + <less> = hopeless
<taste> + <less> = tastelss
<shame> + <less> = shameless
<thought> + <less> = thoughtless
  • This suffix forms an adjective
  • ​When introducing this suffix, I would talk about how in mathematics, the word ‘less’ means ‘take away’. I would discuss how when there is a word that has <less> attached to it, it means without.
Last week, November 11, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <deca>, the root <rupt> and the suffix <ist>.

Next week, November 25, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <auto>, the root <dict> and the suffix <al>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: November 25, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Nov 26, 2019
Happy #morphememonday!

Prefix: auto-

Origin: Greek

Definition: self

Examples: automotive, automation, autonomic, authentic, autoinfection
<auto> + <bio> + <graph> + <y> = autobiography
<auto> + <arch> + <y> = autoarchy
<auto> + <clave> = autoclave
<auto> + <graph> = autograph
<auto> + <mat> = automat
  • Technically speaking, <auto> is considered to be a Greek combining form
  • If it comes before a base element that begins with an ‘h’ or vowel it presents as <aut>, Example: autarchies and authentic
  • While this prefix can be taught to younger students in context, it is better left for teaching when students have a vocabulary that includes more words containing it.

Root: dent

Origin: Latin

Definition: to say or tell

Examples: contradict, predicament, dictum, indictment, malediction
<ver> + <dict> = verdict
<dict> + <ion> + <ary> = dictionary
<pre> + <dict> + <able> = predictable
<in> + <dic> + <ate> = indicate
<contra> + <dict> + <ory> = contradictory
  • This root is best taught to students in high school once students are encountering more words containing it.
  • This root would be a good candidate for a structured word inquiry. It will allow students to see several words containing the root <dict>. This activity could prompt a writing assignment where they are asked to include a certain number of words from the structured word inquiry into their writing.

Suffix: -al

Origin: Latin

Definition: having, act of

Examples: final, legal, vocal, pedestal, emotional
<ab> + <norm> + <al> = abnormal
<verb> + <al> = verbal
<opt> + <ion> + <al> = optional
<med> + <ic> +<al> = medical
<hymn> + <al> = hymnal
  • This suffix is best left for older students who have a good repertoire of suffixes. While it is frequently found in the English language, the meaning of the word is fairly apparent from the base element.
Last week, November 18, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <super>, the root <aqua> and the suffix <less>.

Next week, December 2, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <auto>, the root <dict> and the suffix <al>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememoday: December 2, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Dec 3, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

I can’t believe it is December already. Where has the year gone?

Now that it’s December, have you considered using this month as a teachable moment to teach the prefix <dec> discuss how the month December got its name? In the Roman calendar, December used to be the tenth month of the year, hence the name December.

Prefix: milli-

Origin: Latin

Definition: one-thousandth, thousand

Examples: millenary, millimicron, milliampere, millisecond, milliliter
<milli> + <gram> = milligram
<milli> + <pede> = millipede
<mille> + <pore> = millipore
<milli> + <form> = milliform
<milli> + <volt> = millivolt
  • This prefix is a good one to discuss during mathematics lessons when teaching about place values and measurement.
  • This prefix should be taught to students in middle school grades.

Root: gram

Origin: Greek

Definition: write/written, draw/drawn

Examples: phonogram, grammar, ideogram, chronogram, pangram, tangram
<mono> + <gram> = monogram
<mega> + <gram> = megagram
<tele> + <gram> = telegram
<photo> + <gram> = photogram
<cardio> + <gram> = cardiogram
  • Technically speaking, <gram> is considered a Greek combining form
  • It can be taught in context when appropriate in lessons and explicitly taught to older students.
  • ​It is related to <graph>. The relation between the two can be discussed when talking about the difference between a telegraph and telegram or cardiograph and cardiogram.

Suffix: -ance

Origin: Latin & French

Definition: quality or state of being

Examples: riddance, fragrance, conveyance, reluctance, vigilance
<attend> + <ance> = attendance
<ally> + <ance> = alliance
<comply> + <ance> = compliance
<assist> + <ance> = assistance
<clear> + <ance> = clearance
  • This suffix is one that should be explicitly taught to students in the middle school grades.
Last week, November 25, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <super>, the root <aqua> and the suffix <less>.

Next time, on December 16, 2019, the morphemes will be the prefix <inter>, the root <port> and the suffix <ment>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: December 16, 2019

by Dr. Garforth | Dec 16, 2019 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone! I hope everyone is getting ready to take a much deserved December break. This will be the last #morphememonday for 2019!

Today’s morphemes are all of Latin origin.

Prefix: inter-

Origin: Latin

Definition: between

Examples: interdigital, interlude, intermission, interpose, intermarry
<inter> + <ject> + <ion> = interjection
<inter> + <com> = intercom
<inter> + <act> + <ion> = interaction
<inter> + <cut> = intercut
<inter> + <line> + <ing> = interlining
  • This common prefix is valuable to teach students in the intermediate grades. It is common enough that there will be several words they should be familiar with. If you create a list for them to read, they may be able to deduce the meaning on their own.

Root: port

Origin: Latin

Definition: carry, harbor, gate

Examples: portage, comportment, deportee, exportation, support
<dis> + <port> + <ed> = disported
<im> + <port> + <er> = importer
<trans> + <port> = transport
<ex> + <port> + <ing> = exporting
<re> + <port> + <able> = reportable
  • This Latin root is one that should be to students in the upper elementary or early high school grades as it can help them discover the meaning to words they will start to encounter more frequently in their text books.

Suffix: -ment

Origin: Latin

Definition: act of, state of, or result of an action

Examples: ferment, appointment, amazement, excitement, settlement, development
<state> + <ment> = statement
<frag> + <ment> = fragment
<move> + <ment> = movement
<en> + <joy> + <ment> = enjoyment
<pay> + <ment> = payment
  • This Latin suffix is noun forming. It is a good one to use when you discuss how adding a suffix can change a word from a verb to a noun.
  • ​This suffix should be taught to students in the middle school grades as it can help improve their spelling and help them learn some new vocabulary.
Last time, on December 2, 2019, the morphemes were the prefix <super>, the root <aqua> and the suffix <less>.

The first post of 2020 will feature the morphemes will be the prefix <inter>, the root <port> and the suffix <ment>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: January 27, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Jan 27, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone! I have just about recovered from the flu so let’s get back on track for our morpheme mission.

Prefix: im-

Origin: Latin

Definition: not

Examples: immoral, immense, impertinent, immediate, immaculate
<im> + <pure> = impure
<im> + <prop> + <er> = improper
<im> + <pass> + <able> = impassable
<im> + <part> + <i> + <al> = impartial
<im> + <prove> +<ment> = improvement
  • This prefix is a variant of the prefix <in> that is used before roots beginning with the letters b, m, or p.
  • ​Explicitly teaching this prefix to students, especially to those that struggle with their phonological awareness, will help with their spelling. Some students will struggle to distinguish between the /m/ and /n/, second-guessing themselves when spelling. If they know that if the root begins with a b, m, or p than the correct spelling to use will be <im>.

Root: chron/chrono

Origin: Greek

Definition: time

Examples: chronotherapy, chronometer, chronicle, anachronistic, synchronicity
<chrono> + <bi> + <ology> = chronobiology
<chrono> + <photo> + <graph> = chronophotograph
<geo> + <chron> + <ic> = geochronic
<syn> + <chron> + <ize> = synchronize
<chrono> + <scope> = chronoscope
  • Technically speaking, <chron>/<chrono> is considered to be a Greek combining form.
  • ​This combining form is a good one to teach high school students as they will start to see it more frequently in their academic reading.

Suffix: -ish

Origin: Old English

Definition: like, origin

Examples: ghoulish, selfish, feverish, clownish, publish
<fool> + <ish> = foolish
<gray> + <ish> = grayish
<out> + <land> + <ish> = outlandish
<boy> + <ish> = boyish
<style> + <ish> = stylish
  • This suffix is quite common and one that younger students can enjoy learning.
  • ​When teaching this suffix, remember to discuss that when affixing it to a base element that ends in an ‘e’, it should be dropped before adding the suffix
Last time, on January 13, 2020 the morphemes were the prefix <inter>, the root <port> and the suffix <ment>.

Next week, February 3, 2020, will feature the morphemes will be the prefix <tri>, the root <arch> and the suffix <ize>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: February 3, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 3, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

If you are new to #morphememonday or would like a review of what morphological awareness is, please refer to this post.

Prefix: tri-

Definition: three

Origin: Greek & Latin

Examples: trillion, tripod, triceratops, trigonometry, triplicate
<tri> + <cycle>= tricycle
<tri> + <angle> = triangle
<tri> + <logy> = trilogy
<tri> + <plex> = triplex
<tri> + <sect> + <or> = trisector
  • Teaching the Latin and Greek prefixes for numbers is very beneficial for all students as they will come across words containing this prefix regularly. It can be started from a young age.(If you would like to read more about an idea for a lesson using the prefix <tri> please refer to the #morphememonday from Jully 22, 2019.)
  • ​In Latin, there is the alternative form of <ter> as in the words: tercentenary, tercentennial, tercet, tertiary

Root: arch

Definition: chief or ruler

Origin: Greek

Examples: archangel, autarch, autarchy, patriarch, pentarchy
<poly> + <arch> + <y> = polyarchy
<mon> + <arch> = monarch
<arch> + <i> + <tect> + <ure> = architecture
<an> + <arch> + <y> = anarchy
<bi> + <arch> = biarch
  • Technically, <arch> is a Greek combining form.
  • ​This combining form should be taught to older students with a large repertoire of affixes

Suffix: -ize

Definition: to make

Origin: Latin

Examples: legalize, neutralize, sensitize, melodize, vitalize
<alpha> + <bet> + <ize> = alphabetize
<real> + <ize> = realize
<human> + <ize> = humanize
<idol> + <ize> = idolize
<item> + <ize> = itemize
  • This suffix is verb forming, meaning when it is added to a base word, the word becomes a verb.
  • ​This suffix can be fun to teach students in the intermediate grades by giving them a list of words with the suffix <ize> and ask them to discover the meaning of the suffix.
  • ​This suffix is related to the suffixes <ism> and <ist>. It can be added to many of the same base elements to form related words. Once students have been introduced to these three related suffixes, you can ask them to try to come up with base words that work with all three suffixes.
Reference:

Henry, M. K. (2010). Unlocking literacy: Effective decoding & spelling instruction(2nd ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H Brookes Publishing Company.

Last time, on January 27, 2020 the morphemes were the prefix <inter>, the root <port> and the suffix <ment>.

Next week, February 10, 2020, will feature the morphemes will be the prefix <en/em>, the root <form> and the suffix <or>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: February 10, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 10, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

Here is this week’s dose of morphological awareness.

Prefix: tri-

Definition: in, into, make

Origin: Greek and Latin

Examples: embattle, employ, embolism, enveloped, encompass, encircled
<en> + <joy> + <ment> = enjoyment
<en> + <able> = enable
<en> + <roll> + <ment> = enrollment
<em> + <bell> + <ish> = embellish
<em> + <bed> + <ed> = embedded
  • As you can see these prefixes are allomorphs. <em> is used if the base words begin with a b, m, p, or ph.
  • ​These prefixes are useful but not essential to explicitly teach. However, if a student struggles with spelling and phonological awareness, knowing the rules for when to use <em> can help improve their spelling.

Root: form

Definition: shape

Origin: Latin

Examples: malformation, information, nonconformist, formulate, formula
<uni> + <form> = uniform
<trans> + <form> + <er> = transformer
<con> + <form> + <ing> = conforming
<form> + <less> = formless
<per> + <form> + <ance> =performance
  • This Latin root is a free base as it can stand alone without other affixes.
  • ​This is a common root and should be taught to middle school students as they will begin to come across more words containing it as their vocabulary begins to expand.

Suffix: -or

Definition: a person or thing, denotes abstract, nouns

Origin: Latin

Examples: educator, exhibitor, glamor, respirator, operator
<act> + <or> = actor
<fix> + <ate> + <or> = fixator
<pro> + <ject> + <or> = projector
<trans> + <late> + <or> = translator
<pre> + <dict> + <or> = predictor
  • This suffix is primarily used with Latin roots.
  • ​This suffix is noun forming.
  • ​This suffix should be taught to middle school students.
  • ​It is important to teach this suffix to students who struggle with phonological awareness. Understanding when to use this suffix instead of <er> can greatly improve their spelling.
Reference:

Henry, M. K. (2010). Unlocking literacy: Effective decoding & spelling instruction(2nd ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H Brookes Publishing Company.

Last time, on Febraury 3, 2020 the morphemes were the prefix <tri>, the root <arch> and the suffix <ize>.

Next week, February 10, 2020, will feature the morphemes will be the prefix <di>, the root <derm> and the suffix <ic>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: February 17, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 17, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

Happy Family Day to all of our Canadian Readers.

Last week’s prefix <en/em> was considered to be of both Greek and Latin origin and this week’s prefix <di> is also considered to be of Greek and Latin origin.

While these prefixes share the fact that they both have two places of origin, the difference can be seen in their meanings.

Last week’s prefix <en/em> have the same meaning regardless of the place of origin.

However, this week’s prefix <di> has two meanings, one associated with each place of origin.

Prefix: di-

Definition: Greek: twice, double; Latin: away from, opposite of, not

Origin: Greek and Latin

Examples: diversification, diverge, directive, dichloride, dichotomy, dihedral
<di> + <oxide> = dioxide
<di> + <graph> = digraph
<di> + <lemma> = dilemma
<di> + <late> + <ion> = dilation
<di> + <verse> + <ly> = diversely
<di> + <gress> = digress
  • When a word containing the prefix <di> is of Greek origin, it means twice or double.
  • When a word containing the prefix <di> is of Latin origin, it means away from, opposite of, or not.
  • ​This prefix is suitable for students in the upper elementary grades because they will begin coming across vocabulary containing it more frequently.
  • ​When teaching this prefix, you could say that you plan on talking about the prefix <di> today, but before you discuss it you would like the students to help you brainstorm different words containing it. Once you come up with a list as a class, you can then ask the students if they can try to come up with a meaning for the prefix based on the words they come up with. After a time, you can then discuss how there are actually two meanings for this prefix. For an in-class activity or homework, you can ask the students to sort the words they came up with earlier into the two columns based on their definitions.

Root: derm

Definition: skin

Origin: Greek

Examples: blastoderm, hypodermis, dermatoid, taxidermy, dermabrasion
<auto> + <derm> + <ic> = hypodermic
<epi> + <derm> + <al> = epidermal
<derm> + <o> + <graph> + <ia> = dermographia
<a> + <chromo> + <derm> + <a> = achromoderma
<derm> + <is> = dermis
  • Technically speaking, this is considered a Greek combining form.
  • ​This is not one that I would say is essential for all students to learn. It is a combining form that would be best taught to students in a biology class because while it isn’t very common in everyday conversation, it is more common in biology.

Suffix: -ic

Definition: nature of, like, chemical term

Origin: Greek and Latin

Examples: civic, electronic, allergic, patriotic, scholastic
<poet> + <ic> = poetic
<hero> + <ic> = heroic
<graph> + <ic> = graphic
<metal> + <ic> = metallic
<art> + <ist> + <ic> = artistic
  • When this suffix is added to a base, it forms either an adjective or a noun.
  • ​When teaching this suffix, I would not teach all of the meanings at the same time. I would stick to the first two (nature of and like) to middle school students. I would leave teaching the definition of a chemical term until it is appropriate in a chemistry lesson. However, if the students bring up a chemical term using it, I would take it as a teachable moment and discuss it with them.
Last time, February 10, 2020, featured the morphemes were the prefix <di>, the root <derm> and the suffix <ic>.

Next week, February 24, 2020, will feature the morphemes will be the prefix <multi>, the root <man> and the suffix <ous>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Morpheme Monday: February 24, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Feb 24, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

This week we are focusing on Latin morphemes.

Prefix: multi-

Definition: much or many

Origin: Latin

Examples: multichannel, multifactor, multigenerational, multivariable, multisensory
<multi> + <media> -> multimedia
<multi> + <plex> -> multiplex
<multi> + <sect> -> multisect
<multi> + <tone> + <ed> -> multitoned
<multi> + <graph> -> multigraph
  • This prefix should be taught to students in the intermediate grades of elementary school, once they have a good foundation of some of the other common prefixes
  • While this prefix could be taught in a lesson on its own, it could also be taught in context when words containing it come up throughout your teaching
  • ​When teaching this prefix, it is important to mention that if the base word has begins with a vowel, it could take the form of <mult>

Root: man

Definition: hand

Origin: Latin

Examples: manipulate, emancipate, manicurist, maneuverability, maniple
<man> + <age> + <ment> -> management
<manu> + <script> -> manuscript
<man> + <a> + <cle> + <s> -> manacles
<man> + <i> + <fest> -> manifest
<manu> + <al> -> manual
  • This Latin root is one best left for students who have advanced morphemic awareness because while it can be found in the English language in commonly used words, there are other roots students should focus on
  • ​Note that <man> and <manu> are allomorphs

Suffix: -ous

Definition: having, full of

Origin: Latin

Examples: hazardous, marvelous, clamorous, sinuous, murderous
<riot> + <ous> -> riotous
<joy> + <ous> -> joyous
<in> + <fam> + <ous> -> infamous
<extra> + <ne> + <ous> -> extraneous
<odor> + <ous> -> odorous
  • This is a common suffix that should be explicitly taught to students in the intermediate elementary grades
  • ​When teaching this suffix, it is important to mention its related suffixes:
  • -cious
  • Examples: precious, vicious, malicious, officious
  • ​-ious
  • Examples: amphibious, hilarious, obvious, rebellious
  • When this suffix is added to a base element, it forms an adjective
  • ​This suffix is primarily used with Latin roots
Last time, February 17, 2020, featured the morphemes were the prefix <di>, the root <derm> and the suffix <ic>.

Next week, March 2, 2020, will feature the morphemes will be the prefix <il>, the root <cept> and the suffix <ism>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Morpheme Monday: March 9, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Mar 9, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

Can you believe, that next week, it will be the 30th #morphememonday post?!?

Prefix: il-

Definition: not, in

Origin: Latin

Examples: illegal, illustrious, illiquid, illusive, illicit
<il> + <lit> + <er> + <ate> = illiterate
<il> + <lude> = illude
<il> + <logic> + <al> = illogical
<il> + <liber> + <al> = illiberal
<il> + <lustr> + <ate> = illustrate
  • This is an allomorph for the morpheme <in> that is used before a base word beginning with the letter ‘l’
  • This allomorph should be at least mentioned in a successive lesson after teaching the <in> prefix
  • ​This prefix should be taught once students have established prefix vocabulary in upper elementary school or in high school.

Root: cause, cuse, cus

Definition: reason, motivate

Origin: Latin

Examples: accusation, excused, because, causation, causability
<in> + <ex> + <cus> + <able> -> inexcusable
<ac> + <cus> + <er> -> accuser
<cause> + <al> -> causal
<ex> + <cus> + <ing> -> excusing
<cause> + <less> -> causeless
  • This root should be taught to students in context in upper elementary or early high school.

Suffix: -ism

Suffix: ism

Definition: state of being, doctrine, system, belief or characteristic

Origin: Greek

Examples: baptism, communism, heroism, Hinduism, impressionism
<class> + <ic> + <ism> -> classicism
<nation> + <al> + <ism> -> nationalism
<real> + <ism> -> realism
<pagan> + <ism> -> paganism
<vandal> + <ism> -> vandalism
This suffix is noun forming, meaning that when you add it to a base word, the word becomes a noun.

This suffix should be taught to students in the upper elementary grades.

– <ism> is related to <ist> and <ize> and it can be added to many of the same base elements to make nouns.

Once all three of these suffixes have been taught to the students, challenge them to see how many words they can come up with that can be used with all three suffixes.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: March 16, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Mar 16, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy 30th #morphememonday everyone!

Instead of focusing on a prefix, root, and suffix, this week we are going to focus on the black sheep of the affix family, the connector vowel.

Now like the black sheep of any family, some of the information out there about the connector vowel is true, but there are also some bits of information that well-intentioned people have gotten wrong.

In this post, I will try to set the record straight about what linguists consider to be the connecting vowel letter, or more informally the connector. In some programs, it is also referred to as a connective.

Where do Connecting Vowel Letters come from?

However, connectors never connect a prefix to a base element.

If you are a regular reader of #morphememondays, you will know that I typically post a prefix, root, and suffix. This is done for consistency between posts. Technically speaking, when we feature a ‘prefix’ or ‘root’ of Greek origin, they are actually Greek combining forms. This is always noted in the notes about the morpheme.

We have chosen to call them a ‘prefix’ or a ‘root’ because many of the more familiar reading programs teach them this way.
It is important to highlight this because Greek combining forms can be found in different places within the word. This is why in words of Greek origin, you can find the connecting vowel letter after something that might have been taught as a prefix.

Are Connecting Vowel Letters Syllables?

The Greek connecting vowel letter <o> is always its own syllable within a word. This syllable can be stressed (photography) or unstressed (photograph) (Cook, July 19, 2018).

The Latin connecting vowel letters <e>, <i>, and <u>, may be syllabic or non-syllablic. More often than not, <e> and <u> are syllabic.

Other Things to Consider

The connecting vowel letter <o> is not used when the second base element begins with a vowel.

Connecting vowel letters act like a suffix in some ways because it can replace the final <e> in a base element.

Example:

<line> + <e> + <ar> -> linear

<office> + <i> <al> -> official

However, it does not cause the final consonant to double in single short syllable base elements.

            Example:

            <strat> + <o> + <sphere> -> stratosphere

References:

Cook, G. (July 19, 2018). Connecting the Dots. https://linguisteducatorexchange.com/2018/07/19/connecting-the-dots/

Steven, S. (February 8, 2019). Mrs. Steven’s Classroom Blog. https://mbsteven.edublogs.org/2019/02/08/button-up-your-overcoat-when-the-wind-is-free-ruth-etting/
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: April 6, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 6, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

I hope everyone is staying safe in this time of ‘social distancing’. It is challenging for everyone in this time of uncertainty.

With schools and libraries shutting their door for the foreseeable future in a measure to keep everyone as safe as possible.

This increased time at home can leave one wondering what to do. Learning more about the English language, it’s history, etymology, and morphology can be quite interesting and cause you to think about words and the way they are represented by graphemes.

Without further ado, here are this week’s morphemes:

Prefix: fore-

Definition: front, before

Origin: Old English

Examples: foreclosure, forefather, foresight, foreword, forearm
<fore> + <head> -> forehead
<fore> + <tell> -> foretell
<fore> + <run> + <er> -> forerunner
<fore> + <thought> -> forethought
  • This prefix is one that I would save for teaching in context with older students.

Root: rect, rig, reg

Definition: straight, rule, right

Origin: Latin

Examples: rectify, correctiveness, regal, incorrigible, rigid
<di> + <rect> -> direct
<rect> + <angle> -> rectangle
<ir> + <reg> + <u> + <lar> -> irregular
<in> + <cor> + <rect> -> incorrect
<reg> + <ion> -> region
  • This root is one that does not need to be explicitly taught until students have a firmer foundation in other morphemes.
  • ​If as an educator, you make it common practice to teach morphemes in context, <rect> could be talked about in geometry when discussing rectangles

Suffix: -ent

Definition: one who, quality or state, of being

Origin: Latin

Examples: client, different, evident, magnificent, correspondent
<ex> + <cell> + <ent> -> excellent
<per> + <sist> + <ent> -> persistent
<confide> + <ent> -> confident
<absorb> + <ent> -> absorbent
<pre> + <side> + <ent> -> president
  • This suffix is one that can be taught explicitly to morphologically experienced students
  • ​It could also be discussed in context with students as they begin to see more words containing it in Social Studies or History classes.
Last time, on March 30, 2020 the morphemes were the prefix <pre>, the root <graph> and the suffix <ing>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: April 20, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 20, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday!

I hope everyone is staying safe during the Covid-19 pandemic.

If you are running out of ways to keep your primary student busy at home, you should consider Garforth Education’s Primary Weekly Activity program. I use these activities at home with my children and the Playdough mats make it so I can get a few things done (like writing this post) while they are playing. Click here to learn more about it!
<ex> + <press> + <ive> -> expressive
<un> + <ex> + <pect> + <ed> -> unexpected
<ex> + <cite> + <ment> -> excitement
<ex> + <empt> + <ion> -> exemption
<ex> + <haust> + <ing> -> exhausting
  • This prefix has two variants
  • <e> in words such as elect, elapse, erect, elision, eject
  • ​<ec> in words such as eclipse, anecdote, ecstasy, appendectomy, eccentric
  • When the prefix <ex> means formerly, a hyphen is used as in ex-member, ex-husband, ex-wife, ex-patriot
  • ​This prefix is common and it should be explicitly taught to students once they begin building their prefix inventory in the intermediate grades.
<pro> + <duct> + <ive> + <ness> -> productiveness
<trans> + <duct> + <ion> -> transduction
<post> + <pro> + <duct> + <ion> -> postproduction
<ab> + <duct> + <or> -> abductor
<in> + <duct> + <ive> -> inductive
  • This root should be explicitly taught to students in the upper elementary or early high school grades.
  • This root is a good one to include in a word matrix so students can explore the various words that can be made with this one root.
<like> + <ly> + <hood> -> likelihood
<preist> + <hood> -> priesthood
<state> + <hood> -> statehood
<false> + <hood> -> falsehood
<child> + <hood> -> childhood 
  • When this suffix is added to a base it forms a noun
  • While this suffix does show up in conversations somewhat regularly, it is not one I would focus on teaching explicitly to students. Instead I would discuss the suffix when it comes up in the context of a conversation.
Last time, on April 6, 2020 the morphemes were the prefix <for>, the root <rect,rig, reg> and the suffix <ent>.
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: April 27, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Apr 27, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

I hope everyone is staying safe in this time of ‘social distancing’. It is challenging for everyone in this time of uncertainty.

With schools and libraries shutting their door for the foreseeable future in a measure to keep everyone as safe as possible.

This increased time at home can leave one wondering what to do. Learning more about the English language, it’s history, etymology, and morphology can be quite interesting and cause you to think about words and the way they are represented by graphemes.

Without further ado, here are this week’s morphemes:
<fore> + <head> -> forehead
<fore> + <tell> -> foretell
<fore> + <run> + <er> -> forerunner
<fore> + <thought> -> forethought
  • This prefix is one that I would save for teaching in context with older students.
<di> + <rect> -> direct
<rect> + <angle> -> rectangle
<ir> + <reg> + <u> + <lar> -> irregular
<in> + <cor> + <rect> -> incorrect
<reg> + <ion> -> region
  • This root is one that does not need to be explicitly taught until students have a firmer foundation in other morphemes.
  • If as an educator, you make it common practice to teach morphemes in context, <rect> could be talked about in geometry when discussing rectangles
<ex> + <cell> + <ent> -> excellent
<per> + <sist> + <ent> -> persistent
<confide> + <ent> -> confident
<absorb> + <ent> -> absorbent
<pre> + <side> + <ent> -> president
  • This suffix is one that can be taught explicitly to morphologically experienced students
  • It could also be discussed in context with students as they begin to see more words containing it in Social Studies or History classes.
Last time, on April 20, 2020 the morpheme were the prefix <ex>, root <duck, dice, duct> and the suffix <hood>
Be sure to check out more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Morphological Awareness

by Dr. Garforth | May 4, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays, Reading Science

What is Morphological Awareness?

Morphological awareness is an understanding of the morphemic patterns in words and knowledge of what the morpheme means. The English language is full of polysyllabic words that contain prefixes and suffixes to extend and expand the meaning of the base element or root. These small parts of words (morphemes) and learning about a word’s etymology (where the word came from) provide the missing information needed to discover the complexities of the English language.

Unfortunately, there has been a shift away from explicitly teaching morphemes in schools over the past few decades. When schools include morphology instruction during their Language Arts programs, students gain strategies for decoding new words while reading, for different spelling patterns that exist in English words and enhancing their vocabulary knowledge.

Before going to details about the importance of morphological awareness let’s go over some terminology first.

Affix – a prefix, suffix or infix that can attach to stems or roots to make a new word

Allomorph – any variant form of a morpheme; the spelling of a morpheme can change depending on what precedes or follows it, for example:

s -> hats; es -> foxes; en -> oxen

Etymology – the historical origins of a word; many English words can be traced back to Greek, Latin, French, English and Germanic roots

Grapheme – the smallest unit of a writing system; in English, these are the letters of the alphabet

Infix – are put in the middle of the word

Morpheme –the smallest unit of meaning in a word; a free morpheme can stand alone or be combined with another to form a new word (ex. happy); a bound morpheme must be attached to another morpheme to make a word (ex. un)

Phoneme – the smallest unit of sound in spoken language

Prefix – a morpheme at the beginning of a word or root and affect the meaning of the word

Root – a morpheme which is the basis of a word and rarely stands alone

Suffix – a morpheme added to the end of a word or root; it can change the word to a different form (noun, verb, adjective or adverb)

Why should Morphology be taught in schools?

There is no argument that every student should have a solid foundation in synthetic phonics in order to become competent readers and spellers. However, teachers should not stop their reading and spelling instruction there, they should include explicit morphological awareness instruction. Teaching students about morphemes provides them with strategies they can use to read and spell unfamiliar words as well as giving them hints to what the word might mean (e.g. Henry,1993).

When students are taught approximately 130 prefixes, roots, and suffixes, they will have the tools for reading and spelling many more words than they could if they were just sounding them out using their basic phonics. The knowledge of these morphemes will provide access to hundreds of thousands of words (Henry, 2019).

How do you teach Morphology?

Teaching morphology is as simple as regularly teaching students new prefixes, affixes, roots and suffixes as they fit with the curriculum.

Children can be taught about morphemes and the etymology of words at the same time as they are learning phonics in kindergarten and grade 1 (Devonshire, Morris, & Fluck, 2013). Young children can understand that words are built differently depending on where that language came from. If teachers discuss these different spellings with their students, the students have a better chance of understanding why sounds are spelt differently.

When educators are first introducing morphemes to students in the primary grades, it is best to start with adding suffixes to words. In the beginning, start with words that will not require a change in spelling when the suffix is added (ex: hope + less = hopeless; sad + ly = sadly).

As the students get more comfortable with this process, they can start to learn the rules associated with adding different suffixes to words. For example, the doubling rule when adding a suffix to a single syllable word with a short vowel sound (can + ing = canning; fan + ed = fanned).

The middle and upper elementary grades are when the shift from teaching children how to read to expecting children to read to learn new information occurs. During these grades, it is important to ensure to focus on morphological awareness because it contributes to students decoding and spelling ability. Teachers can use graphic organizers with their students to form word webs for different morphemes.
They can also create word matrices and word sums to help show students how morphemes combine to create words in the English language.
Morphology instruction does not just have to happen during language arts lessons, the majority of content specific words found in Social Studies, Science and Mathematics are made up of morphemes with Latin and Greek origins. This allows teachers to include instruction about the morphemes related to the content area during lessons focused on vocabulary.
The following websites can provide valuable information about the morphology and etymology of different words in the English language:
  • English-Word Information
  • Online Etymology Dictionary
  • ​Learn that Word: Root Words & Prefixes Quick Reference
  • ​Learn that Word: List of English Suffixes
Be sure to check out more information about morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

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Reference:

Devonshire, V., Morris, P., & Fluck, M. (2013). Spelling and reading development: The effect of teaching children multiple levels of representation in their orthography. Learning and Instruction, 25, 85-94.

Henry, M. K. (1993). Morphological structure: Latin and Greek roots and affixes as upper grade code strategies. Reading and Writing, 5(2), 227-241.

Henry, M. K. (2019). Morphemes matter: A framework for instruction. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, Spring 2019, 23 – 26.

Moats, L. C. (2004). Science, language, and imagination in the professional development of reading teachers. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.) The voice of evidence in reading research(269-288). Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

* The Word Matrix was made on Neil Ramsden’s Mini Matrix-Maker Edit Page
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#Morpheme Monday

by Dr. Garforth | May 11, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

Alright, now back to this week’s morphemes. As a reminder, a morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in the English language.

A prefix is a morpheme found at the beginning of a word.

A root is a morpheme that provides the basis for the word’s meaning.

A suffix is a morpheme found at the end of the word.

Prefix: un-

Origin: Old English

Definition: not, do the opposite

Examples: unknown, unhappy, untie, unaffected, unspoken, unbelieving
<un> + <think> + <able> = unthinkable
<un> + <bend> = unbend
<un> + <made> = unmade
<un> + <said> = unsaid
<un> + <invite> + <ed> = uninvited
<un> + <affect> + <ed> = unaffected
  • The prefix <un> is consistently pronounced with a short /u/ vowel sound
  • ​This prefix is suitable to teach younger children. They can have a lot of fun with coming up with their own words!

Root: aud

Origin: Latin

Definition: to hear or listen

Examples: audiotape, audiophilic, inaudible, auditor, audition, auditorily
<aud> + <i> + <ence> = audience
<aud> + <ile> = audile
<aud> + <i> + <ology> =audiology
<aud> + <i> + <phone>= audiphone
<aud> + <ible> = audible
  • The root <aud> is consistently pronounced with an /aw/ vowel sound like found in law or hawk
  • This root is frequently followed by the letter ‘i’ before a suffix is added (as seen in the examples above)
  • ​This root is best for students who have developed a foundation of the common morphemes found in the English language but would be suitable for students in middle school.

Suffix: -ion

Origin: Latin

Definition: state of, result of

Examples: diction, expression, junction, progression, injection, exhaustion
<con> + <vict> + <ion> = conviction
<in> + <fuse> + <ion> = infusion
<ex> <haust> + <ion> = exhaustion
<sect> + <ion> = section
<sub> + <mers> + <ion> = submersion
<fract> + <ion> = fraction
  • The suffix <ion> pronounciation is typically dictated by what procede’s it.
  • if the syllable before it has a short vowel sound, it is usually pronounced as /shǝn/; example: admission, confusion, tension
  • ​if the syllable before it has a long vowel sound, it is usually pronounced as /zhǝn/; example: erosion, abrasion, infusion
  • ​if the base word before it ends in a ‘t’, it is usually pronounced as /shǝn/; example: probation, intention, exception
  • This suffix is noun forming, for example, in mathematics the word ‘add’ is a verb with a complimentary noun form of ‘addition’
  • ​This suffix should be taught when students are starting to come across words that containing it in their reading and spelling vocabulary.
  • ​In many tutoring programs, this suffix is taught as the spelling patterns -tion and -sion.
  • ​This suffix was commonly misspelled in a spelling error analysis I conducted on students who were English Language learners with a Chinese first language. This study concluded that students with a Chinese first language background would benefit from morphological instruction.
Be sure to check out the more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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Last week, July 29, 2019, we focused on the prefix <sub>, the root <min> and the suffix <s>/<es>.

Next week, August 12, 2019, we will be focusing on the prefix <mis>, the root <aster>, and the suffix <ness>.
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#Morphememonday

by Dr. Garforth | May 26, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

I hope everyone is staying well and keeping safe.

This week we are going to focus on some of the more common Latin morphemes in the English language. These are all ones that students should be taught because of how frequently they appear in the English language. Knowing these morphemes will help children with decoding, spelling, and understanding the meaning of words they come across for them in texts and conversations.

Prefix: de-

Origin: Latin

Definition: do the opposite of, down, away

Examples: denominator, demonstrate, delicious, decrease, delivers
<de> + <script> + <ion> -> description
<de> + <vote> + <ion> -> devotion
<de> + <light> -> delight
<de> + <fraud> ->defraud
<de> + <act> + <ive> + <ate> -> deactivate
  • This is a common prefix that students should be taught to students when they are first learning about morphemes.
  • It can be revisited when the students are learning about fractions as a way to remember the term denominator. You can remind them the prefix <de> means down for denominator so denominator means the number on the bottom of a fraction.

Root: tain

Origin: Latin

Definition: hold

Examples: container, entertain, maintain, abstainer, sustainer
<con> + <tain> + <ment> -> containment
<ob> + <tain> + <able> -> obtainable
<re> + <tain> + <er> -> retainer
<per> + <tain> + <ing> -> pertaining
<dis> + <tain> + <ed> -> distained
  • The morpheme <tain> has a few alternative forms that are also common in the English language. They are <ten>, <tin>, and <tinu>. In most cases, I think it is best to teach morphemes one at a time, especially with younger students. However, as students get older, learning more than one morpheme with the same meaning is achievable.
  • This is a morpheme I would consider teaching together because, depending on the other morphemes affixed to it, it will change spellings within the same word family. Think of the words sustain and sustenance. The suffix <ance> has changed the form of the root.

Suffix: -ible

Origin: Latin

Definition: able to

Examples: sensible, incredible, eligible, permissible, accessible
<ex> + <press> + <ible> -> expressible
<force> + <ible> -> forcible
<re> + <verse> + <ible> -> reversible
<il> + <leg> + <ible> -> illegible
<flex> + <ible> -> flexible
  • The suffix <ible> is a variant of the suffix <able>. This suffix should be taught after <able> but within a close proximity of it.
  • ​When this suffix is added to a base element, it becomes an adjective.
  • Its related suffix <ibility> can be added to several of the same base elements to form nouns (ex: response, responsible, responsibility).
Reference:

Henry, M. K. (2010). Unlocking literacy: Effective decoding & spelling instruction(2nd ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H Brookes Publishing Company.
Did you know that Garforth Education has created two online courses, A Parent’s Guide to IEPs and A Teacher’s Guide to IEPs? These courses were designed to give you a clear understanding of the IEP Process and they guide you through the steps you should take to prepare for IEP meetings.

Be sure to check out the more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday-prefix-a

by Dr. Garforth | Jun 1, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

I hope everyone is staying well and taking care.

This week the prefix we are featuring has two different meanings and can trace its origins back to Old English, Latin and Greek!

Prefix: a-

Origin: Latin/Old English

Definition: in, on, to

Examples: aback, asleep, astride, afloat, afar
<a> + <board> -> aboard
<a> + <woke> -> awoke
<a> + <like> -> alike
<a> + <drift> -> adrift
<a> + <loud> -> aloud

or

Origin: Greek

Definition: not

Examples: anarchy, adamant, amoral, anonymity, analgesic
<a> + <byss> -> abyss
<a> + <lex> + <ia> -> Alexis
<a> + <nem> + <ic> -> anemic
<a> + <stat> + <ic> -> static
<a> + <prax> + <ia> -> apraxia
  • This prefix should be taught over three days, the first day you should focus on the Latin/Old English definition, the next day work on the Greek definition and on the last day, review the two meanings of this morpheme and then provide the students with a list of words they can sort into two columns based on the meaning of the prefix
  • As you can see by the words used in the examples, this suffix is fairly common in the English language. This is a prefix that should be explicitly taught to students because it is one they will come across on a regular basis.
  • ​Once someone knows what this suffix means, it can help them when they come across a word they are not sure of.

Root: fer

Origin: Latin

Definition: bear, carry, yield

Examples: aquifer, inference, offer, odoriferous, fertilizer
<cir> + <cum> + <fer> + <ence> -> circumference
<tele> + <con> + <fer> + <ence> -> teleconference
<con> + <i> + <fer> + <ous> -> coniferous
<dif> + <fer> + <ent> + <ial> -> differential
<trans> + <fer> + <able> -> transferable
  • This common root should be explicitly taught to students in the upper elementary grades. There are several words in the English language that contain this root. This will all help students discover meanings of words they have not come across before when they are reading.

Suffix: -est

Origin: Old English

Definition: superlative degree

Examples: farthest, youngest, flattest, bitterest, sharpest
<smooth> + <est> -> smoothest
<tall> + <est> -> tallest
<weak> + <est> -> weakest
<cloud> + <y> + <est> -> cloudiest
<long> + <est> -> longest
  • This is a common suffix that is easy to teach children in the primary years
  • This suffix is considered a superlative suffix
  • This suffix changes a word into an adjective
  • ​I like teaching this suffix with the suffix <er> because then you can have students compare things with each other. For example, what is cold, colder, and coldest.
  • ​Appropriate spelling rules associated with adding a suffix should be taught at the same time as this suffix
  • The 1 -1 – 1 Spelling Rule: When adding a suffix starting with a vowel onto a single syllable word that has one vowel making a short vowel sound and one consonant, double the final consonant before adding the suffix. ex: <fat> + <est> -> fattest
  • Drop the Silent e Rule: When the last syllable in a word has a silent e at the end (ex: pure) drop the ‘e’ before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. ex: <pure> + <est> -> purest
  • Change the y to i Rule: When the word ends in the letter y, you must look to see what the letter before it is. If it is a vowel (ex: enjoy, stay), keep the y. If it is a consonant (ex: cloudy, muddy), change the y to i and add <ed>. So <cloudy> + <est> -> cloudiest and <muddy> + <est> -> muddiest --- Remember to tell your students that almost all of these rules for adding suffixes have exceptions but it is fairly safe to follow them most of the time.
Be sure to check out the more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: june15,2020

by Dr. Garforth | Jun 15, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememoday everyone! I hope you are having a great day. For anyone new to morphology, you can learn more about what morphemes are here.

This week we are featuring an Old English prefix, twin Latin roots, and a Greek suffix.

Prefix: be

Origin: Old English

Definition: by, thoroughly, make, provide with

Examples: beyond, below, berate, beseech, beneath
<be> + <got> + <en> -> begotten
<be> + <little> -> belittle
<be> + <muse> + <ed> -> bemused
<be> + <stow> -> bestow
<be> + <came> -> became
  • Like most Old English morphemes, this prefix is actually more common than you think, and you can find it in many everyday words throughout the language
  • Even though this prefix occurs frequently in our day to day language, it is one that is better to teach in context when the words come up.
  • ​If you decide to teach this prefix explicitly, it would be one for teaching older students who already have a good repertoire of morphemes

Root: fect/fic

Origin: Latin

Definition: make, do

Examples: beneficiary, defect, effectively, infection, magnificent
<dis> + <in> + <fect> -> disinfect
<non> + <fict> + <ion> -> nonfiction
<pro> + <fic> + <i> + <ent> -> proficient
<con> + <fect> + <ion> -> confection
<de> + <fect> + <ion> -> defection
  • These are a pair of twin roots/bases, which simply means they have alternate forms or spellings.
  • ​These are some of the most common roots in the English language.
  • ​You should take the time to explicitly teach these roots to students in the intermediate grades. They will frequently come across words that use these roots as a base element and it can help them understand the meaning of unknown words.

Suffix: -oid

Origin: Greek

Definition: signifying like

Examples: sinusoid, celluloid, cycloid, solenoid, steroid
<aster> + <oid> -> asteroid
<human> + <oid> -> humanoid
<metal> + <oid> -> metalloid
<prism> + oid> -> prismoid
<planet> + <oid> -> planetoid
  • Technically speaking, this would be considered a Greek combining form but it is often taught as a suffix.
  • This is a perfect example of a suffix/combining form that you could teach during a science or mathematics lesson. If you look over the example words in for <oid> you will see that most of these words would typically be found in conversations related to those topics. When you first come across these words in your teaching, you should discuss how <oid> means that the object signifying the root/base element of the word. Then when you come across a term using it, you can quickly revisit the meaning of <oid> in context. This can help solidify its meaning to students and help them discover the meaning of words containing <oid> in the future.
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If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: june 22 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Jun 22, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

Can you believe we are coming up to the anniversary of #morphememondays?

The first #morphememonday was July 8th 2019 and we have covered so much since then.

Prefix: pro

Origin: Latin & Greek

Definition: forward, in favor of, before

Examples: proclamation, prognosis, propound, prosecute, prohibit
<pro> + <voke> -> provoke
<pro> + <file> -> profile
<pro> + <test> + <ed> -> protested
<pro> + <tract> + <or> -> protractor
<pro> + <tect> + <ing> -> protecting
  • This prefix is very common and found in many words in the English language
  • It should be explicitly taught to students in the intermediate grades
  • ​Knowledge of this prefix will give them the ability to use morphemes to hypothesize meanings of words they are not familiar with
  • ​Once you teach this prefix and the prefix <anti> you could have a discussion about different groups that are pro- and anti- topics.

Root: ten/tin

Origin: Latin

Definition: hold

Examples: retentive, continual, discontent, contents, tenure
<un> + <ten> + <ant> +<ed> -> untenanted
<con> + <tin> + <ent> -> continent
<main> + <ten> + <ance> -> maintenance
<per> + <tin> + <ent> -> pertinent
<ten> + <e> + <ment> -> tenement
  • These twin bases are very common in the English language and related to <tain>
  • ​They should be taught to students in the intermediate grades so that the student can use them to try to infer the meaning of words they come across while reading.

Suffix: -ent

Origin: Latin

Definition: one who, quality or state of being

Examples: client, superintendent, president, competent, accident
<abs> + <orb> + <ent> -> absorbent
<com> + <pet> + <ent> -> competent
<im> + <min> + <ent> -> imminent
<abs> + <ent> -> absent
<par> + <ent> -> parent
  • This suffix can be explicitly taught to students in the intermediate years of school
  • This suffix can be noun forming or adjective forming
Be sure to check out the more graphics for these morphemes on our Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and Twitter pages.

If there is anything we can do or post to help you learn more about the importance of morphological awareness (or any other topic for that matter) please send an email to blog@garfortheducation.com

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#morphememonday: June 29, 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Jun 30, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone! I hope you are doing well.

This week we are going to discuss a French suffix for a change.

Prefix: ad

Origin: Latin & Greek

Definition: forward, in favor of, before

Examples: proclamation, prognosis, propound, prosecute, prohibit
<ad> + <mit> -> admit
<ad> + <mire> -> admire
<ad> + <just> -> adjust
<ad> + <vent> -> advent
<ad> + <here> -> adhere
  • This prefix has several alternate forms that depend on the first level of the base element or root that they are attached to including: ac-, af-, ag-, al-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, & at-; when these alternate forms are used, a double consonant occurs
  • This prefix occurs frequently in the English language and should be taught to students once they have learned some of the other more common suffixes in the English language.

Root: miss/mit

Origin: Latin

Definition: send

Examples: remit, emissary, commitment, permit, omission
<sub> + <miss> + <ion> -> submission
<trans> + <mit> + <er> -> transmitter
<non> + <com> + <mit> + <al> -> noncommittal
<dis> + <miss> + <al> -> dismissal
<re> + <miss> -> remiss
  • As you can see, this twin base is fairly common in the English language and it should be explicitly taught to students as they begin to learn more about the common roots in the English language.
  • ​It would be a great choice for creating a word matrix or word web to demonstrate how many words this root is used in.

Suffix: -ard

Origin: French

Definition: a person who does an action

Examples: buzzard, haggard, standard, placard, wizard
<cow> + <ard> -> coward
<dot> + <ard> -> dotard
<drunk> + <ard> -> drunkard
<slug> + <ard> ->sluggard
<tank> + <ard> -> tankard
  • This French suffix is noun forming
  • It is not a suffix that I would make a point of explicitly teaching students but one that I would mention in context.
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#morphememonday: july 6 2020

by Dr. Garforth | Jul 6, 2020 | Morpheme Mondays
Happy #morphememonday everyone!

Can you believe that today marks the one year anniversary of #morphememondays!?!

I created #morphememonday as a response to an article I read about the importance of morphological awareness. As I was reading the article, I remember thinking about how in my own teacher education program that morphological was not even brought up once. I knew about morphemes from my own experience in Orton-Gillingham tutoring growing up. I decided it was time to help other educators learn about morphological awareness. So I decided to focus on a few morphemes each week.

I hope you have enjoyed it so far and look forward to future conversations with everyone in the future.

So, let’s turn our focus to this week’s morphemes.

Prefix: ideo

Origin: Greek

Definition: idea

Examples: ideologue, ideoplasty, ideotheory, ideomotor, videographer
<ideo> + <graph> + <ic> +<al> + <ly> -> demographically
<ideo> + <gram> -> ideogram
<ideo> + <log> + <ism> -> ideologism
<ideo> + <gen> + <ic> + <al> – ideogenical
  • Technically speaking <ideo> is a Greek combining form
  • This is a combining form that I may mention to younger students in context but it is not one I would focus on until the upper high school grades or even university because it is one that is not frequently used outside of academia

Root: tact/tang

Origin: Latin

Definition: touch

Examples: tactician, tangent, contingently, tactometer, actually
 <in> + <tact> + <ness> -> intactness
 <tact> + <ic> + <al> -> tactical
 <tang> + <ent> -> tangent
 <con> + <tact> -> contact
 <tact> + <ic> + <ian> -> tactician
  • This is a common root that is regularly found in everyday language, I would teach it to students in the upper elementary or early high school grades because it will help them to find meaning in new words that they come across in reading.
  • ​It would be a great word to use for a word matrix assignment

Suffix: -ary

Origin: Latin

Definition: a place where, of, having to do with

Examples: salary, disciplinary, honorary, centenary, imaginary
<bound> + <ary> -> boundary
<second> + <ary> -> secondary
<dict> + <ion> + <ary> -> dictionary
<diet> + <ary> -> dietary
<in> + <firm> + <ary>- infirmary
  • Words containing this suffix are either nouns or adjectives
  • This suffix should be explicitly taught to students at the end of elementary school or the beginning of high school. It provides a good opportunity to remind students about nouns and adjectives and how they relate to each other.
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